■ . ■
■•'•:■
" ; '. ;
Analytic study
of a group
. OF FIVE AND SIX
WM 01. n children .■
. ■
LIBRARY
Walter E. Fernald
State School
Waverley, Massachusetts
No . ■■•■'■
X II I- K
UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES
IN CHILD WELFARE
Professor Bied T. Baldwin, Ph. D., Editor
FROM THE IOWA CHILD WELFARE RESEARCH STATION
VOLUME I NUMBER 4
ANALYTIC STUDY OF A GROUP OF
FIVE AND SIX-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN
BY
Clara H. Town, Ph. D.
Research Associate
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, IOWA CITY
STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
Pages
1. The Physical Growth of Children from Birth to Maturity, by 385
Bird T. Baldwin, Research Professor of Educational Psy-
chology and Director, Iowa Child Welfare Research Station
(in press)
2. A Survey of Musical Talent in the Public Schools, by Carl E. 36
Seashore, Head of the Department of Philosophy and Psy-
chology and Dean of the Graduate College.
3. A Preliminary Study in Corrective Speech, by Sara M. 36
Stinchfield, Assistant in Speech Training.
4. An Analytic Study of a Group of Five and Six-Year-Old Chil- 87
dren, by Clara H. Town, Research Associate.
5. Investigations in the Artificial Feeding of Children (reprints) 36
by Amy L. Daniels, Research Professor of Nutrition,
Albert H. Byfield, Professor of Pediatrics, and Rosemary
Loughlin, Assistant in Nutrition.
6. Child Legislation in Iowa, by Frank E. Horack, Professor 36
of Political Science.
7. Selective Migration as a Factor in Child Welfare in the 150
United States, with Special Reference to Iowa, by Hornell
N. Hart, Research Associate (in press)
BULLETINS ON THE AIMS AND PROGRESS OF RESEARCH
(IN CHILD WELFARE)
A Child Welfare Research Station, by Carl E. Seashore, Ph. D.
Vocational Guidance in Music, by Carl E. Seashore, Ph. D.
Administration and Scope of the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station.
UNIVERSITY EXTENSION BULLETINS BY MEMBERS OF
RESEARCH STATION STAFF
57. Diet for the School Child, by Amy L. Daniels
59. The Physical Growth of the School Child, by Bird T. Baldwin
65. Feeding the Baby, by Amy L. Daniels, and Albert H. Byfield
School Lunches, by Amy L. Daniels (in press)
Diet Card, by the staff (in press)
The Studies in Child Welfare are listed at moderate prices, but are
sent free on request to persons who are actively engaged in child welfare
work in the state. The Bulletins on the Aims and Progress of Research
in Child Welfare may be obtained free of charge from the Librarian of
the University. Extension Division Bulletins may be secured free of
charge upon application to the University of Iowa Extension Division.
CONTENTS
Editor's Foreword 5
I. Introduction 7
II. Physical Examination 9
Table I
1. Medical Examination 9
2. Acuity of Vision 16
3. Acuity of Audition 17
4. Dental Examination 19
III. Anthropometric Measurements 20
Table II
1. Height 23
2. Weight 24
3. Chest 26
4. Span of Arms 27
5. Head 27
IV. Speech Examination 31
V. Mental Examinations 33
Tables III, IV
1. General Intelligence Tests 38
Chart I
2. Analytic Tests 39
Chart II
3. Complex Performance Tests 65
VI. Type Cases 70
Charts III, TV, V, VI
VII. References 86
EDITOR'S FOREWORD
This is a preliminary investigation for a more comprehensive
program the Research Station has outlined, covering a series of
years, and aiming to determine what kind of children the Iowa
homes are sending to the Iowa schools. Dr. Town made a series
of observations and experiments from many angles on 52 children
during the first months of their school life, with the direct help
and cooperation of the staff of the Station, members of the Medical
and Dental Colleges, the Graduate College, and the school authori-
ties of Cedar Rapids.*
Few physical, mental and social tests are available for use
with such young children, and many of those which are applicable
are not standardized. Several of the tests were found to be too
easy and showed an undistributed maximum score; others were
too difficult and showed an undistributed zero. With a few cases
there resulted a complete failure to understand the directions of
the test, and no score was made. These facts show that some new
experiments and different standards with more specific technique
will be necessary for the further studies which are contemplated.
In the absence of norms, the performance of each child is com-
pared with the percentile score of the group. For convenience of
treatment, the psychological tests are grouped under descriptive
terms such as imagination, memory and perception. This should
not be taken to mean that any general ability which could be des-
ignated by such terms, was being tested. The charts and type
cases attempt to give a synthetic, synoptic picture of twelve
children.
♦The medical examination was made by Dr. J. J. Terrall, a local physician of Cedar
Rapids. The dental examination was made by Dr. E. A. Rogers and Dr. R. W. Rogers
of the University of Iowa College of Dentistry. The tests for auditory acuity and pitch
discrimination were given by Mr. H. M. Halverson of the Department of Psychology, Uni-
versity of Iowa. The speech examination was made by Miss Sara Stinchfield of the
Iowa Child Welfare Research Station. The other measurements were made by Dr. Clara
H. Town. Special mention should be made of the assistance of Dr. Carl E. Seashore and
Et. Ellsworth Faris of the University in planning and carrying out the investigation dur-
ing the Director's absence in the service of the United States Army. Dr. Town was un-
able to complete the investigation during her appointment as Research Associate. The
Director, therefore, assumes the responsibility for a number of minor changes and elim-
inations which it seemed desirable to make when preparing the manuscript for publica-
tion. In this work he has had the assistance of Dr. Lorle I. Stecher. Dr. Town, who is
now in France, has read and approved the final manuscript.
5
IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
The investigator was given as much freedom as the general
program would permit, and the tests selected, the traits measured
and the technique in several instances have been determined by
her interest and training and the accessibility of the materials and
methods.
The present problems of the Research Station lie in two distinct
directions: (1) The elimination of some of the tests, the addition
or amplification of others, the further consecutive scientific
analysis of the most fertile experiments, and the examination of
additional pre-school children, with a view to an ultimate survey
of the complete child from several aspects, and (2) the organiza-
tion and stimulation of a remedial program for these and similar
children who are representative of the large mass of five and six
year old children of Iowa. It is a most significant fact in this
Study that not a single child was found to be free from mental or
physical defects.
Bird T. Baldwin
Office of the Director
Iowa Child Welfare Research Station
University of Iowa
October 1, 1920
XIII- K
ANALYTIC STUDY OF A GROUP OF FIVE- AND SIX-YEAR-
OLD CHILDREN
I. INTRODUCTION
As a part of the year's research for 1918-1919, the Iowa Child
Welfare Research Station planned a comprehensive study of
little children who had just reached school age but who had not
yet been modified by school influences. The underlying thought
was, that could the schools obtain, when a child is first entered,
an adequate knowledge of his abilities and disabilities, strengths
and weaknesses, both mental and physical, they could make a
more intelligent attempt to plan the first years of his school liHe
That improvement is needed in the school procedure during
these first formative school years is evidenced by the large number
of children who repeat the kindergarten and the first and second
grades. In the 1915-1916 report of the Cedar Rapids schools the
percent of nonpromotions in the kindergartens is given at 27.4
per cent, in B-first 16.6 and in A-first 16.8. In the 1918 school
report for Denver, Colorado, the retardation in the first grade
amounted to 44 per cent, and in the second grade, 52 per cent.
This retardation is based on age. If retardation starts thus early
the causes for retardation must already be present, and if these
causes are discovered at the beginning of the child's school life
there is a possibility of eliminating the retardation before perma-
nent harm is done.
As it seemed impossible to secure the children for the purpose
of study in any other way than through the public schools it was
decided to direct our studies to classes just beginning school, classes
composed of children who, though they had entered school, were
very nearly home products. The general plan of the Research
Station is to study several such groups in representative sections
of some one Iowa city and later to extend the study to include
cities in various sections of the state and also country schools. It
is hoped that in this way it will be possible to discover what sort
of children the Iowa homes send to the Iowa schools. This study
7
8 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
i
presents the results from one class in Cedar Rapids, the research
extending over a period of six months.
Though not modified by school influence, these children have al-
ready been modified by home influence. Each little child of the
group is the result of six years of development under a home in-
fluence differing from the home influence acting upon every other
child of the group. At six years of age, although potentialities
of some adult abilities have not yet manifested themselves in
conduct, children are already highly differentiated individuals
with dominant tendencies of character and temperament. Many
innate tendencies have appeared, which have been fostered, cur-
tailed or shunted into diverse channels of activity by the influence
of home environment or discipline. Many habits, of both body and
mind, have been acquired. In short, at six years, children are
already so highly individualized that it is no longer justifiable
when referring to them to speak of "the child" but better to speak
of "the children."
The plan was not, therefore, to study our children in groups,
but to analyze each complex individual in the group. It was part
of the plan to learn as much as possible about him physically — the
development of his body and its parts, the functionings of his
circulatory, respiratory, digestive, glandular and nervous systems,
the state of his nutrition, the condition of his sense organs and
the adequacy of his motor power and control. It was a part of the
plan to learn as much as possible about him mentally — the stages
of development of his various mental processes, his habits, in-
stincts, impulses, temperamental tendencies and dominant traits of
character. It was also part of the plan to find out what he had
experienced during his five or six years of life, on the physical
side — his illnesses, his privations, his indulgences, the character
of his food, shelter, clothing and general environmental experien-
ces — and on the mental side, the home influences — emotional, aes-
thetic, intellectual, religious, moral and disciplinary.
This accumulation of facts relating to a child as he was in the
beginning and as he has been during the first five or six years
when compared with our findings as to what he is at the end of
these years should tell something of the experiences and influences
which have made him what he is. Such studies when repeated with
each of a large group of children should do something toward
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 9
pointing out what sort of experiences and influences tend to produce
a satisfactory type of six year old and what sort of experiences and
influences tend to produce a defective or handicapped type of
child.
The collected facts from a small typical group should also con-
tribute to our knowledge of the number of children who are defec-
tive physically or mentally when they enter school and to our
knowledge of the nature of these defects. They should do much
to show whether the defects noted in so many children after two or
three years' experience of school life and sometimes attributed
to school life itself, are already present in the child prior to any
school experience.
The following pages contain a record of the studies made of
fifty-two children in one class in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. The report
naurally divides itself into sections on the physical findings,
(physical examinations, anthropometric measurements and speech
examinations), a section on the mental findings and a section on the
social findings, consisting of sketches of individual children.
An analysis of the tabulated results of the physical findings brings
to light some rather startling conditions. Most startling of all,
perhaps, is the fact that every child in the group is in need of
physical help of some sort.
II. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
The physical examination of each child comprised a general in-
spection of the body,* a medical and dental examination, together
with tests for visual and auditory acuity and pitch discrimination.
1. Medical Examination
Outline
Skeletal Development
Muscular development
Skin and appendages
Glands
Respiratory System
Upper respiratory tract
Rate of respiration
Chest
Inspection
•The eye color was also classified and recorded according to the directions and chart
given in the Trait Book published by the Eugenics Record Office, Bulletin 6.
10
IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
to
to
©
to
en
to
CO
CO
to
to
CO
H
to
©
©
00
-3
©
en
4-
CO
CO
en
©
©
©
oo
09
-3
©
en
*fc
co
CO
M
Child Number
en
91
at
©
en
en
©
en
en
en
en
en
-3
©
©
en
Cn
en
cn
en
en
cn
cn
Age in Years
e
o
M
O
o
©
©
©
©
©
cc
©
h- 1
©
©
00
©
©
©
00
©
09
©
©
©
CO
©
oo
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
i- 1
©
©
©
©
co
©
©
©
©
©
cc
©
©
©
o
Acuity in Vision R
e
o
o
o
M
©
©
©
©
oo
©
oo
©
©
©
00
©
00
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
09
©
oo
-v.
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
oo
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
00
©
©
©
©
Acuity of Vision L
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Binocular Inco-
ordination
©
CO
h- 1
o
00
M
o
CO
©
CO
©
©
©
00
©
©
©
00
©
©
©
00
I-'
©
©
©
©
©
©
00
©
©
©
-a
©
©
©
00
©
©
©
-3
©
©
©
cc
H
©
©
©
CO
cc
©
cc
-3
©
©
©
-3
©
©
-a
©
-3
©
-3
M
©
©
oo
-3
-J
-3
-3
©
©
©
oo
©
©
©
©
©
©
CC
©
©
©
-3
©
©
©
00'
©
©
00
-3
-J
-3
Auditory Acuity R
(Whisper) (a)
Auditory Acuity L
(Whisper)
CO
09
to
09
CO
CO
en
CO
©
en
to
en
09
to
oo
to
©
CO
©
CO
CO
M
CO
*>
CO
h- 1
oo
09
CO
©
CO
co
en
©
CO
CO
co
©
CO
-3
CO
CO
©
©
CO
-3
CO
CO
CO
en
CO
©
co
~3
©
Auditory Acuity R
(Audiometer) (b)
co
en
CO
©
to
CO
to
©
en
to
en
CO
to
©
to
©
as
CO
Cn
co
CO
CO
©
CO
©
CO
co
to
©
CO
to
Cn
©
CO
©
CO
CO
CO
to
co
CO
CO
CO
09
CO
-3
CO
CO
co
CO
Cn
CO
-3
©
Auditory Acuity L
(Audiometer)
M
-a
Cn
CO
to
I- 1
to
©
00
oo
co
co
>->
-3
cc
00
©
oo
CO
co
CO
co
CO
co
to
©
Pitch Discrimination
+
—
Tympanic Membrane
Dull R
+
Tympanic Membrane
Dull L
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
+
+
+
Enlarged Cervical
Glands
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Enlarged Inguinal
Glands
Enlarged Cubital
Glands
+
—
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4-
+
Tonsils, Enlarged
or Diseased
+
+
Adenoids, Enlarged
+
+
to
00
+
to
©
©
©
©
CO
©
©
h- 1
©
—
Lungs, Rales
©
if*
oo
©
©
4^
to
©
Von Pirquet Test
CO
to
©
©
to
f- 1
to
©
CO
©
o
*-•
©
©
©
H- 1
CO
Pulse Rate
cc
>
p
+
GO
CO
>
p
>
+
en
>
p
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Heart Murmurs
-3
CO
>
oo
en
>
p
©
00
>
a
-1
00
>
a
-J
-3
CO
-3
en
00
©
go
-3
©
-3
©
-3
cn
-3
CO
-3
cn
©
©
00
CO
©
en
-3
en
Haemoglobin
>
>
p
>
%
>
>
p
1— >
©
to
©
>
©
cn
>
p
©
CO
CO
>
p
©
to
©
>
p
>
P
Urine, Acid or
Alkaline
O'O
o|co
©
to
-3
1—
©
to
©
©
to
en
©
CO
en
*-•
©
©
t- 1
©
©
CO
©
CO
o
H
~1
©
CO
©
l— 1
©
CO
CO
©
©
©
CO
CO
©
CO
©
Urine, Specific
Gravity
1-4
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN
11
o
-t
p
S'
c-f
H
P
H
to
to
r
Cl-
H
to
*i
©
M
>
<
(D
P
w
W
1
t+
H
P
»1
to
co
F
n
rt-
H
p
4
to
*>■
00
00
tO
On
On
O
On
M
O
S.
M
O
M
O
\
h- 1
O
CO
00
On
04
\
H>
O
H
O
\
H
O
f
-a
On
©
M
©
04
\
©
©
4*
on
on
4*
it*.
CO
to
4*
4*
©
00
©
00
X
00
~3
00
©
OO
on
oo
00
CO
CO
to
00
1— 1
00
©
to
©
to
X
Child Number
on
On
On
on
On
On
on
©
On
©
On
-3
On
©
On
Ol
Age in Years
©
©
H ■
©
©
©
H ■
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
h- '
©
©
h- >
©
©
M
©
4*
>->
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
i— '
©
©
©
Acuity of Vision R
OC
©
1— '
©
©
'X
©
©
M
©
©
©
©
(- 1
©
©
1— '
©
©
©
h- 1
©
\
I-"
o
©
©
©
M
©
h- '
©
©
©
i— ■
©
©
M
©
Acuity of Vision L
+
+
Binocular Inco-
ordination
©
-3
©
-3
CO
-0
h- 1
©
0C'
©
■X'
1— '
©
X
©
X
©
CO
-3
©
-3
©
X
I- 1
©
X
©
X
X
-3
©
-3
1— 1
©
X
©
X
©
-3
Auditory Acuity R
(Whisper) (a)
o
CO
CC
©
©
CO
CO
©
©
co
©
CO
©
CO
©
cc
X
©
X
©
X
©
©
©
X
©
X
©
©
©
>->
©
©
©
©
©
©
Auditory Acuity L
(Whisper)
00
tO
to
o
H
CO
to
-J
On
to
04
04
to
-J
04
to
00
to
04
04
to
DO
04
to
On
On
to
00
to
it*
©
00
©
00
to
CO
00
©
On
to
-a
to
©
©
M
CO
to
CO
©
to
X
oo
©
On
00
On
to
©
to
©
to
©
to
On
00
M
X
On
on
BO
to
©
to
-3
CO
On
CO
1— 1
On
to
©
©
to
X
to
X
©
Auditory Acuity R
(Audiometer) (b)
to
©
00
to
-3
to
00
Auditory Acuity L
(Audiometer)
o
to
o
o
o
©
©
©
H
to
©
©
X
©
to
CO
X
to
on
©
Pitch Discrimination
Tympanic Membrane
Dull R
+
+
Tympanic Membrane
Dull L
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
—
—
+
+
+
Enlarged Cervical
Glands
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Enlarged Inguinal
Glands
+
+
+
+
+
+
Enlarged Cubital
Glands
—
+
+
M
o
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Tonsils, Enlarged
or Diseased
—
—
+
+
+
+
to
+
to
©
+
+
Adenoids, Enlarged
+
+
Lungs, Rales
to
©
I-"
©
©
©
h- 1
©
©
4^
©
to
to
©
to
©
M
©
4*.
H- 1
to
©
h- 1
to
to
©
-3
©
Von Pirquet Test
Pulse Rate
+
+
X
©
©
-3
Heart Murmurs
-J
o-
-3
On
~3
to
-3
On
-J
-J
-3
On
-3
00
©
©
-3
X
M
-3
©
-3
CO
X
©
Haemoglobin
>
a
>
>
>
>
a
>
>
1?
>
a
Urine, Acid or
Alkaline
>->
©
H
cc
H
C
H
©
©
to
©
to
m i
©
to
©
©
i— i
X
(-1
©
to
©
©
to
On
Urine, Specific
Gravity
►3
to
12
IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
to
-J
to
©
N>
Cn
to
tsO
CO
to
to
to
to
©
©
oo
-3
o>
cn
£k
co
to
>->
©
©
00
-a
05
cn
*h
co
to
M
Child Number
o
o
o
o
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
Urine, Sugar
o
o
o
o
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
+
©
©
©
Urine, Albumin
—
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
Urine, Acetone
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
Urine, Indican
+
+
+
+
Circumcision Needed
+
+
+
+
Flat Foot
+
+
Bowed Legs
+
+
+
+
Scoliosis
+
+
Lordosis
+
4-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Scapulae Prominent
+
w
+
+
+
+
+
Left Handed
©
©
**
©
©
w
CO
to
co
to
to
to
©
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
©
©
to
to
to
Eye Color
o
o
o
i-J
o
©
CO
©
©
©
©
©
to
to
©
as
to
©
to
©
to
to
©
to
to
©
©
©
Temporary Teeth
Lost
o
o
I- 1
*»
©
©
i*
©
©
©
©
to
to
*».
©
to
©
©
cn
©
©
©
Permanent Teeth
Erupted
Cn
-3
to
©
©
©
to
to
©
#k
co
©
to
00
OS
cn
^
00
to
©
Temporary Teeth
Carious
h-»
O
h*
O
©
©
to
©
M
©
©
©
©
©
©
l-l
©
©
M
h- 1
©
©
©
©
©
Temporary Teeth
Abscessed
o
o
H
e
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
to
to
co
©
©
©
Permanent Teeth
Carious
o
o
O
o
©
©
©
o
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
Permanent Teeth
Abscessed
o
+
o
©
+
o
+
o
o
+
©
©
+
©
©
+
to
©
+
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
l-l
H
©
H-l
h-»
©
©
©
©
©
Extraction
Recommended
©
©
CO
©
©
©
©
J-
1
©
©
©
©
©
Mal-occlusion
©
+
+
+
+
+
©
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Cleaning by Dentist
Needed
o
+
+
©
+
©
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
©
+
+
©
+
+
+
+
©
Tooth Brush Owned
°
a
o
o
©
©
©
©
O
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
©
Teeth Already Filled
►3
>
w
CO
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN
13
COtsSH*OtDOO-qO»Cnit»
W^5HOtOC»-qo>Oll^
CO
CO
DO
to
CO
CO
o
to
to
00
Child Number
o o
o o o
o
o
o
Urine, Sugar
o o
o o o
o
o
o
Urine, Albumin
o o
o o
o
Urine, Acetone
h3
? o
o o
o
+
Urine, Indican
+
+
Circumcision Needed
+ + +
+
+
Flat Foot
Bowed Legs
—
—
+
Scoliosis
Lordosis
+
+ +++
+
+
Scapulae Prominent
+ w
ILeft Handed
w
^ co to *>. e
SNIOl *. CO
to
o
h- 1
o
to
CO
to
Eye Color
o o o c
D O © °_ OOOOOO
M
o
H-"
Temporary Teeth
Lost
O O t-> <
=> o © ° © © to © © o
-J
o
o
Permanent Teeth
Erupted
rf*. to m (
-»O0sW ^OCn» AtO
CO
o
to
—
-a
-3
Temporary Teeth
Carious
kio eo <
I> © © O © © H» © © h-i
o
o
o
o
Temporary Teeth
Abscessed
o o o
OOO© OOOOOO
o
Permanent Teeth
Carious
o o o
=> © © © OOOOOO
o
o
o
o
Permanent Teeth
Abscessed
o o o
3 © © © © © l-> © © ©
o
t-J
o
o
Extraction
Recommended
o o o
oooo oocoosoo
c
o
o
o
Mal-occlusion
++ +-
fo++ +©++++
+
+
+
+
Cleaning by Dentist
Needed
+ 4- +■
f+OO ©+++++
+
+
c
o
Tooth Brush Owned
1 oo
oooo oooooc
K
c
c
o
Teeth Already Filled
h3
>
h^
14 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
Palpation
Percussion
Auscultation
Von Pirquet when indicated
Circulatory system
Pulse rate: standing and sitting
Regularity of beat
Quality of beat
Arteries
Veins
Heart
Blood
Wassermann when indicated
Genito-urinary
Examination of urine-sugar, albumin, indican, acetone
Sexual abnormalities
Nervous system
Sense organs
Deep sensibility: nerve trunks, muscles, sense of position and
passive movements, and tension
Coordination
Tremors, tics, automatisms, chorea, convulsions
Reflexes
Superficial
Deep
A number of points merit comment in connection with the
physician's findings. In the lung examination, rales were de-
tected in 5 cases out of 43. These are not necessarily an indication
of tuberculosis, as rales may be due to an acute and transient
disorder only. Only 1 out of 11 children whose parents consented
to a Von Pirquet test showed a positive reaction and this was not a
child in whom rales had been detected. A positive von Pirquet
may, moreover, be obtained after the active tuberculous condition
has passed. Enlarged lymphatic glands were present in 41 out
of 43 children. This, again, is not to be taken as indication of
tuberculosis, since this glandular condition may accompany dis-
eased tonsils or adenoids or decayed teeth, all of which conditions
occurred in a large number of this group of children.
In the heart examination, murmurs were found to be present
ir» 11 cases. A heart murmur found in an examination is no
more a conclusive proof of organic heart lesion than is the pres-
ence of rales a conclusive proof of tuberculosis. Heart murmurs
are sometimes the result of anaemic conditions, and to judge of
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 15
their significance it is necessary to consult the symptoms indica-
tive of the state of nutrition — the haemoglobin content, the height-
weight record, etc. Many pulse rates were rapid, but this was
manifestly due to excitement at being examined.
The haemoglobin content was measured with a Sahli haemometer.
In a well-nourished individual approximately 14 per cent of the
blood stream is haemoglobin. This amount is represented on
the scale of the instrument used by 100. Dr. Cabot considers 80 as
the average for children from 5 to 15 years, and Dr. Josephine
E. Young, in a study of children at the School of Education,
University of Chicago, secured an average of 77 for boys from 6
to 11 years, and an average of 80 for girls from 6 to 17 years of age.
If our data are comparable with Dr. Cabot's, 30 of our 39 children
have a haemoglobin content below the average. Only one of
our group reached a content of over 86. This child's haemoglobin
was 95. The lowest ratings were 66 and 67 ; 27 cases fell between
70 and 80 and 8 between 80 and 90. It would seem, however, that
the very method of the haemoglobin test would make accurate
comparisons between data secured by different individuals almost
impossible. The exact matching of color required by the test
makes the reading depend upon the accuracy of the color percep-
tions of the examiner. This accuracy, of course, varies with in-
dividuals, and the personal equation is therefore largely con-
tributory to the results obtained. The haemoglobin content,
moreover, is only one of many methods of estimating malnutri-
tion, and to be of value should be considered in connection with
height- weight, condition of skin, etc. When we compare the
haemoglobin content with the height-weight record we find that
18 of the 30 children having a haemoglobin content under 80
are underweight. (Table I.) In connection with all these medical
data, it is of interest and value to note the anthropometric records
in order to see how a child's general physical development and
weight-height index are correlated with the physician's findings.
An effort was made to inform the parents of the results of
the examinations, both by parents' meetings and by visits to the
homes. Intelligent cooperation in remedying defects was almost
always secured. It appeared in most cases that the parents were
unaware of the child's condition and expressed great satisfac-
tion that the child was having a thorough examination.
16 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
2. Acuity of Vision
As the children were still unable to read, it was necessary to
use for testing visual acuity an ' ' illiterate test. ' ' The E charts on
the market are unsatisfactory in two particulars: first, there are
so many E's on the chart that a young child has difficulty in
centering his attention on the particular E to which the examiner
points; second, it is quite possible for some children to learn the
order of the positions on the card while the first eye is being
tested, which of course vitiates the test for the other eye. To elimi-
nate these difficulties, a set of white cards five inches square was
prepared, in the center of each of which was mounted an E cut
from the E chart. On the back of the chart was written the
amount of vision necessary (20/20, 8/10, etc.) to see that let-
ter at twenty feet, and also the position of the E on the reverse
side. The examiner stood at a distance of twenty feet from the
child, held the pack of cards in an upright position and exposed
one at a time for the child to observe. The child was asked to
point in the direction that the E pointed and was given a little
practice in doing so at close range before the test was taken.
If he failed to grasp the idea of the pointing method, he was given
a cut-out E the size of the largest E and asked to hold it so
that it looked like the E on the card. One or the other method
usually brings a satisfactory response unless the child is an im-
becile of the excitable type. The eyes of 47 children were so
tested, and 22 (47 per cent) were found to have defective vision.
(Table I).
The Maddox rod test for binocular coordination revealed the
fact that 4 children who had average acuity of vision by the E
test showed marked incoordination of the eye muscles as did also
6 of the 22 who had diminished acuity. Such incoordination would
interfere materially with the process of learning to read. These
visual defects were present when the child entered school and
were not due to strain sustained at school through poor lighting,
blackboards, small print, etc. It is obvious that all children should
be tested upon entering school in order that such conditions may
receive attention before further strain interferes with general
health and school progress.
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 17
3. Acuity of Audition
The acuity of hearing was tested by two methods : the whisper
method and the Seashore audiometer. In the whisper test (An-
drews' method) the stimuli are special lists of number words pre-
pared by Andrews. 1 The whisper was kept as uniform as possi-
ble by always using for it the residual air after a deep inspiration
and expiration. Each ear was tested separately, a piece of cotton
being placed in the external meatus of the ear not being tested.
The child was seated with the ear in line with the examiner, eyes
looking straight ahead, and told to "Say just what I say." It is
sometimes necessary to explain very fully what is desired; one
child so persistently said a totally different number than the one
spoken by the examiner that misunderstanding was suspected and
it was discovered that she thought we were playing a kind of game
in which the examiner thought of a number and then she thought
of a number.
The percentage of successful repetitions for each ear was re-
corded. After the whole group had been tested, the mean per-
formance for each ear was found and this was used as a norm
with which each child's performance was compared. The child's
score was computed in terms of per cent of these norms. If a
child made no error his score was of course above the average,
and therefore necessarily above 100 per cent. A perfect per-
formance with the right ear equaled 108, the average for the
group being 92. A perfect performance with the left ear equaled
109, the group average being 91. Only two very low scores were
obtained: one was right ear 64 per cent, left ear 43 per cent;
the other, right ear 76 per cent, left ear 77 per cent. The latter
is an adenoid case; the former's source of trouble has not been
ascertained. The findings are presented in Table I. It was found
necessary to examine ears for wax before testing and to wash out
many. Otherwise, the wax deposits acted as stoppers and reduced
the hearing.
The acuity of hearing was tested with the Seashore audiometer.
For testing these children the audiometer was wired in series with
one dry cell, a rheostat being introduced to keep the voltage con-
stant at 0.8 volts. The sound is conveyed to the children's ears by
telephone receivers and each ear is tested separately. The sounds
18 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
are produced in descending order from loudest to softest and then
in ascending order, and the child is told to say "Now" or to nod
the head . when he hears it. With our little children only the
descending order was used, as the children found it hard to fixate
their attention upon the sound and it was difficult to hold them
for more than three readings with each ear. Unavoidable noises
from the street and school rooms distracted them somewhat. Three
readings were secured for each ear and these were averaged to ob-
tain the score. The highest readings in absolute numbers are the
lowest scores because the highest numbers represent the louder
sounds. There are no norms for children with which to compare
our findings except our group average obtained from 44 children,
which is: right ear 25.3, left ear 24.8. The average adult hears
down to 12. The scores are presented in Table I, and may be com-
pared directly with these averages. With the right ear, the
poorest score, 37, was that of child No. 2, with 108 in the whis-
per test, and the next lowest, 34.5, was that of child No. 32, who
made 87 in the whisper test. The best scores, 14.3 and 18, were
made by children No. 14 and No. 52 ; child No. 14 made 108 in the
whisper test and child No. 52 was not tested. One boy failed en-
tirely who made scores of 87, right ear, and 77, left ear, in the
whisper test. This boy was, however, a peculiar child, made re-
ticent by a speech defect, a boy who would not be apt to respond
until he was thoroughly familiar with the environment and the
examiner.
The children were also tested for pitch discrimination, by means
of resonators and tuning forks, varying from 435 v. d. to 465 v. d.
by the steps %, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 17, 23, and 30 in terms of vi-
bration difference. In regular procedure the standard fork is
sounded, then another, and the subject is asked to state whether
the last tone is higher or lower than the first. As children of
five years as a rule do not know the meaning of high and low in
relation to sound, they were asked to sing the sound they heard.
The frequently occurring exaggerations of interval by the children,
if in the right direction, were taken to mean that the children
really appreciated the difference in pitch. The least dif-
ference in pitch that the child distinguished with certainty was
recorded as the score. The variations in the findings are so
great that the group norm is useless. The scores vary from
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 19
2 to 17 vibration differences, with 13 total failures. The individual
scores are given in Table I. The singing ability of the children
was also judged by listening to each sing any little song he
happened to know. The examiner noticed that there were as
many ways of singing a song as there were children to sing it, and
that the little ones had individual variations to which they clung.
He also noticed that many of them had difficulty in changing
from one tone to another when the difference was a half or whole
step, or in some cases when the difference was a greater step.
4. Dental Examination
The dental examinations were made in a special room to which
the children were brought one or two at a time. The examination
charts were filled out at the dentist's dictation. The tabulated
records are given in Table I. They show in 43 children 220 car-
ious teeth, 15 abscesses and 5 cases of malocclusion. The teeth of
36 children needed cleaning by a dentist. Probably as a result of
a school health crusade in progress at the time, 31 children had
toothbrushes. Only one child had had a tooth filled, though the
number of carious teeth, as previously mentioned, was 220. Appar-
ently these conditions are due to the deplorable belief found
among parents and even among some dentists that the condition
of the first teeth does not matter because they will soon come
out. The remedy would seem to be a school dental clinic.
To sum up the physical situation, every child in the group is
in need of physical help and all but one in need of medical at-
tention for more than one condition. Eight defects were found in
each of two children, seven in each of five, six in each of eight, five
in each of seven, four in each of five, three in each of nine, and two
in each of six children. These children were not, however, from the
poorest class of society, but lived in comfortable homes and had
as much physical care as the children of the average working man
receive. The appended type study sketches indicate the character
of their environment. In spite of this, they were handicapped by
the defects and malnutrition noted and were in poor physical
condition for meeting the strains of school work.
20 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFAKE
III. ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
"If in the future a scientific pedagogy is destined to rise, it
will devote itself to the education of men already rendered physi-
cally better through the agency of the applied positive sciences,
among which pedagogical anthropology holds first place." So
writes Montessori in the introduction to her Pedagogical Anthro-
pology. In it she not only brings together an immense amount of
anthropological data, but clearly points out that the school is the
field in which anthropology may step beyond the limits of pure
speculation and diagnosis and actually contribute toward the
practical work of bringing school children up to the ideals of
bodily form set by itself.
Physical anthropology concerns itself with gathering data on
bodily form. Anthropology as applied to education concerns itself
with gathering data on the developmental stages of form and var-
iations of these. In process of the work it discovers variations
from the usual in an individual child's development and points
the way for ameliorative treatment before the parts of the body
become fixed and set in faulty fashion, too often accompanied by
just as faulty organic functioning. Thus pedagogical anthropol-
ogy adds to the research function of anthropology a practical
application which will be far-reaching in its effect upon the well-
being of the present generation.
For a concrete illustration, if we find a child is too narrow chested
and we know that with such a chest the lungs cannot develop or
function as they should, that chest measurement is taken as a
basis for special training and exercise which may, if it is begun in
time, lead to the development of the chest and the saving of the
child from tuberculosis.
Special stress is laid by anthropometrists upon the relation
of various measurements to one another. For example, the ratio
between sitting height and the height known as index of stature,
is considered by many to give more information concerning bod-
ily power and strength than either absolute measurement. For
example, Montessori holds that the essential height is the sitting
height because this measurement includes the trunk in which the
vital organs are situated. According to her, the greater the size
of the trunk in proportion to the height, the more room there is
ANALYTIC STUOT DF CHILDREN
21
ts
o
3 ts
s a
3 ts
5 ts
3 ts
3 ts
3 ts
> ts
i c
> oc
-3 O
> cn 4>
. a
N
h-i C
> co oo -J a
> o
* ax &
' tO H-
Child Number
C
<3
1 Q
3 &
J &
1 ft
JC
) C
»C
) C
! C
1 ff
a
> ts
IC
)Ott
) C
i &
J W ft
] Q
> Q a
JO ft
' Sex
i a
a
i CT
CT
CT
CT
CT
CT
CT
a
a
CT
CT
a
0.
t a
CT
I CT
V
\ crt C3
x Cn qt
. Age
*•
tO
0*
0.
co
«
H
C
to
ts:
hJ
©
CO
Cn
CO
CO
h-
ts:
h-i
C
ts:
CT
CO
a
co
h-
>
ts.
Cs-
a
h-
• 4x h-
) CO Cv
i CO CT
> 4X Cs
Birth Month
CT
C
4x
a
c
tO
M
OS
Cn
©
OS
o
as
CT
a
h-l
CO
o
00
cn
o
o
c
CO
cn
h-i
as
h-i
h-i
CT
CT
h-i
4*
c
CT
h^
OC
CT
c
h-
h-
zr
CT
l h-l h-
1 OS C
1 V
■ h-i C
> h-i to
Height in Cm.
4x
CT
4S»
CO
Cn
OS
4x
Cn
cn
-3
as
Cn
OS
hi
OS
Cn
CO
Cn
cn
as
o
CO
cn
ax
CT>
as
as
h-i
as
as
ax
as
as
o
CD
CT
as
h-i
a
ts
CT
a
-si
CT
CT
Cs
a
©
to
CT
CT
to
OC
CT
a
h-
CT
CT
CO
to
to
o» a
h-i h-
CTI CT
CT! CT
CO CT
© a
> os a
i 4x to
l CT
i cn a
1 -3 h-
> os to
i Cn -3
Sitting Height in Cm.
Cn
Os
O
00
91
tO
to
hi
cn
hi
O
4x
CI
Ox
as
o
Cn
cn
OS
CO
cn
00
h-l
h->
cn
CO
CO
CO
Cn
OX
to
CO
Cn
OS
©
CO
cn
to
o
CO
cn
CO
-3
cn
Cn
cn
h-i
cn
as
h-i
CT
CO
CO
CT
CO
CT
CT
c
-c
CT
CD
CT
CO
h^
a
Index of Stature
to
o
CO
hi
4X
Ox
hi
CO
4X
os
o
to
o
00
as
CO
h-l
OS
-3
h-l
cn
oo
h-i
oo
h-l
h-l
cn
-3
h-i
as
co
h-<
-3
-3
to
CO
h-i
h-l
co
cn
h-i
-3
co
to
©
CO
ts:
h-i
~3
to
to
as
h-i
4x
-3
h-i
CO
©
h-i
CO
ax
h-i K
CO h-
4x CT
tO h-i
CO OC
h-i CT
to h-<
© OC
00 hi
Weight in Kgm.
.
-J
-3
CO
00
-3
cn
cn
-3
~3
00
cn
4x
cn
as
cn
OS
as
OS
cn
-3
Cn
to
as
if*
CO
CO
as
cn
as
cn
-3
oo
CD
-3
CD
©
as
as
-3
as
-3
OS CD
-3 4*
Weight-Height Index
CTt
ax
Ox
co
Cn
Ox
C0
Ox
-a
M
cn
-3
cn
M
cn
00
Cn
-3
cn
ax
CO
CO
Cn
cn
ax
Cn
cn
4x
Cn
cn
O
cn
to
cn
Cn
O
cn
cn
CO
cn
CO
cn
CD
cn
cn
CT
CT
-3
CT
as
CT
CT
h-i
cn
CD
CT
*>.
4^
CT
cn
as
CT
CT
CT
4^
jx
CT
CT
ax
ax
-3
CO
as
CT
CT
4X
-3
OS
Cn cn
CO 4^
CT
ax ax
ax cc
00 CO
tol to
cn CT
sO ax
Chest Circumference
cn
h->
Ox
h-l
cn
h-i
h-l
-3
ax
CO
CO
cn
ax
oo
CO
oo
cn
o
Cn
*>-
CO
4^
4^
CO
co
cn
h-i
to
CD
oo
4».
CO
CT
h-i
to
CT
©
CTt CT
CO to
l-i <o
CT ix
Vital Index
t-»
tO
hi
-3
Cn
o>
00
CT
-J
h-»
o
M
Ox
hi
cn
-3
Ox
o
to
CO
to
cn
h-l
CO
to
hi
4x
h-l
h- '
OS
h-l
to
OS
h-l
to
CO
h-i
ax
CO
h-i
to
co
h-i
to
-3
h-i
CO
h-i
CO
as
h-l
CO
cn
h-l
to
h-l
h-l
to
as
h-i
CO
00
h-i
-3
CO
h-i
CO
*".
h-l
-3
cn
h-i
CO
CT
h-i
Cn
h-i
h-i
CO
h-l
-3
h-i
to
h-l
as
CT
t -1 ►-"
to to
co
os oo
oo
1 M h-i
co to
ax
Chest, anteroposterior diam.
h-l
~3
4X
h-i
as
h-*
-3
Ox
h-l
Cn
-3
h-l
-3
CO
h-i
os
CO
h-l
CT>
00
h-i
cn
h-l
00
CO
to
CO
as
h-l
-3
h-i
CT
h-i
-3
as
h-i h-i
OS ~3
-3 CO
Chest, transverse diam.
-3
Cn
00
OS
00
CO
00
CO
as
OS
OS
OS
00
o
to
cn
-3
h-l
o
CO
00
-3
-0
CO
-3
CO
to
h-l
00
-3
Cn
oo
as
h-i
Ol
as
to
-3
as
to
-3
-3
-3
O
~3
-3
h-l
CT
CD
-3
CO
-3
h-i
©
00
CD
oo
as
h-i
-3
as
h-i
4x
4^
to
to
CT
©
cn
00
h-*
CO
h-i
to
to
as
-3
as
CT
-q
h-l
h-i
as
CD
-3
h-l
-3
CT
h-i
CO
CT
to
CO
CT
©
-3
-3
h-i _
h-i
h-i
-3
CO
00
CD
©
CD
oo
CO
-3
©
h-i
-3
h-i
h-i
CO
to
CO
CO
ax
CO
-3
-3
h-«
h-i
to
©
h-i
-a
as
ax
h-i
h-i
h-i
ro
CD
~3
CT_
h-l
as
GO
h-i
CO
ax
to
CT
©
-3
CD
-3
h-l
h-i
h-i
CT
-3
to
-3
to
h-l
h-i
cn
CD
CO
-3
h-l
~3
00
h-i
CO
00
to
-3
CT
h-l
-3
-3
CT
h-i
to
CO
CT
-3 CD
co to
to CO
h-i
I- 1 h-l
I-* ©
CT oj
co co
CO cn
t- 1 h-*
00 _3
cn co
h-l h-i
co ax
as ax
tO h-i
OS h-i
Cn cn
tO -q
-3 00
co co
CT cn
l- 1 h-i"
tO h-i
4x co
00 to
00 OS
© CO
to co
co h-i
h-i t-l
© ©
-3 CTt
CT CTt
h-»
CO ©
00 CO
-3 rfx
h-i h-i
00 -3
Ox CO
h-> hi
co ax
-3 CTI
to to
CO
CT CTt
hi ©
Cn lq
CT
~3 00
ax co
4x 00
hi hi
to to
© OS
os co
Chest Index
hi
©
CO
h-l
hi
cn
h-"
o
4x
cn
h-i
o
O
CO
cn
h-i
o
OS
h-i
CO
oo
h-i
o
Cn
h-i
©
as
h-l
h-l
oo
h-i
o
as
h-i
o
h-l
h-l
©
CO
CT
\rm Span
<o
CT1
as
M
~3
CO
CO
M
00
h-i
-3
CO
CO
to
cn
h- 1
-3
CO
CO
00
-3
00
CO
00
Cn
h-l
00
CO
CO
CO
CO
h-l
OS
cn
CD
CO
-3
h-i
-3
CO
CO
-3
as
h-i
as
h-l
CO
00
h-i
-3
CO
h-l
as
CO
CD
00
~3
h-i
as
CD
CO
as
h-i
-3
to
h-i
O
h-i
-3
h-i
00
-3
CD
CT
O
h-i
as
4X
CD
as
h-i
h-i
-3
CO
CD
as
©
h-i
-3
Span-Height Index
Head, Greatest
Length in Cm.
hi
4x
tO
hi
CO
cn
CO
ax
CO
M
4x
to
h-"
4x
cn
h-i
CO
00
h-l
CO
00
h-i
ax
h-i
-CI
h-l
to
cn
h-i
CO
h-l
co
h-i
h-l
h-i
CO
4x
h-i
CO
to
h-l
4X
to
Head, Greatest
Breadth in Cm.
00
ax
CO
CO
to
h-»
h-*
<l
Ox
CO
00
Cn
o
cn
h-l
CO
Ox
00
ts3
to
Cn
to
as
ax
CD
h-i
CO
Cn
cn
to
as
4^
00
CT
h-i
CD
CT
h-i
CO
CT
to
Head, Aural
Height in Cm.
CTt
hi
cn
O
cn
i-i
cn
cn
CO
cn
CO
In
Head, Circumference
00
to
-3
oo
as
cn
-3
CO
ax
-3
00
4x
-3
CO
to
oo
co
-3
-3
CO
-J
00
as
CO
00
CO
-3
OS
as
00
o
-3
-3
-3
CO
-3
cn
00
h-i
-3
-3
as
CO
h-i
©
CT
CO
oo
h-i
as
h-i "
h-i
CO
CO
Cephalic Index
co
4x
hi
to
aj
hi
co
00
CO
h-»
CO
CO
00
h-i
h-i
o
>hx
h-i
h-i
Ox
-3
h-i
h-i
o
CO
h-i
to
CO
o
h-l
h-i
h-i
O
CO
CO
h-i
to
-3
-3
h-i
h-*
CO
CT
Head, Capacity
i-3
22
IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
en
to
en
en
o
co
CO
-3
os
4^
en
fe
*>
life
CO
4^
to
*>
I-*
4^
©
CO
©
00
co
eo
-3
eo
os
CO
en
eo
eo
eo
CO
to
CO
r- 1
00
©
to
©
CO
CO
to
-3
Child Number
©
M
CO
©
en
td
w
td
td
Q
td
o
a
O
Q
td
O
td
o
Q
td
Q
O
td
o
td
td
td
Sex
en
en
en
en
©
*h
en
en
en
en
en
en
en
en
OS
cn
©
en
-3
en
©
en
en
en
Age
M
co
o
H
eo
o
eo
en
rfs>
o
oo
en
to
co
M
rf*.
4^
4*
eo
to
>-■
eo
CO
eo
-3
co
co
CO
©
eo
co
CO
(-•
eo
to
CO
CO
Birth Month
o
CO
en
OS
en
o
o
oo
en
o
o
o
en
a
os
o
os
en
©
©
en
©
eo
en
©
©
©
©
en
©
-3
en
©
oo
en
©
-3
co
©
©
oo
en
©
-3
co
©
©
©
Height in Cm.
©
co
en
©
en
©
o
en
©
o
en
OS
en
-3
OS
©
en
en
-3
CO
en
00
en
00
©
en
CO
-3
os
©
en
©
co
en
©
co
en
CO
en
4»-
©
CO
en
©
©
to
eo
cn
oo
Sitting Height in Cm.
en
co
00
en
o
en
CO
eo
en
en
-q
OS
en
OS
os
CO
en
CO
OS
en
en
OS
-3
en
-3
-3
en
co
-3
en
-3
en
to
OS
©
en
eo
CO'
en
en
en
CO
en
en
CO
©
cn
CO
eo
en
en
en
CO
en
©
en
CO
cn
-3
cn
en
00
co
en
-3
en
en
-3
to
Index of Stature
00
00
to
©
to
o
co
H
oo
-a
os
os
-3
-3
os
CO
~3
-3
OS
-3
OS
*>
en
4*
os
-3
©
-3
-3
to
co
-3
©
©
cn
oo
eo
en
CO
oo
©
©
©
-3
Weight in Kgm.
o
00
00
00
©
os
OS
-3
os
os
h- 1
-3
00
OS
os
-3
eo
-3
00
en
eo
en
CO
en
©
-3
to
©
eo
en
oo
©
-3
i- 1
-3
4^
©
en
Weight-Height Index
en
-J
en
to
en
en
en
en
en
en
en
en
os
en
CD
en
en
os
en
*>
©
en
to
en
en
to
en
en
►-»
en
cn
CO
©
©
cn
©
en
©
en
©
cn
en
CO
en
en
en
to
Chest Circumference
en
en
CO
eo
CO
CO
00
en
M
M
en
en
H
en
en
CO
oo
en
oo
to
en
eo
CO
OS
CO
oo
en
©
00
CO
00
©
CO
-3
©
CO
4*
00
eo
-3
en
en
to
©
en
©
©
en
©
cn
©
CO
I- 1
en
CO
-3
en
©
en
CO
Vital Index
to
en
I-*
en
co
to
en
CT>
en
-3
en
-3
en
—
to
en
-3
**
CO
en
co
en
i- 1
i- 1
CO
OS
I- 1
©
CO
-3
co
CO
©
en
en
CO
-3
eo
CO
Chest, anteroposterior diam.
en
en
h- 1
-3
-3
00
os
en
OS
-3
©
I- 1
oo
©
CO
4*
oo
-3
en
CO
CO
I- 1
en
00
h-'
CO
en
en
-3
©
oo
©
00
Chest, transverse diam.
o
o
en
CO
o
CO
to
o
H- 1
CO
CO
-a
eo
en
to
co
to
co
en
-J
os
rfs*
o
oo
00
-3
00
©
oo
os
M
4*
en
-3
©
©
©
-3
CO
©
©
co
en
co
-3
4s-
to
CO
-3
©
CO
-3
©
-3
-3
oo
CO
©
-3
en
CO
-3
-3
CO
00
-3
£>-
CO
Chest Index
O
4^
I- 1
o
eo
o
o
©
OS
o
oo
©
©
©
©
©
©
en
©
©
CO
©
©
©
en
en
©
©
en
-3
©
-3
en
©
©
Arm Span
©
©
en
to
00
©
CO
00
o
eo
en
co
h- 1
o
en
CD
co
eo
CD
CD
en
t-1
o
o
o
©
CO
©
©
en
os
©
-3
cn
©
os
eo
©
to
CO
©
oo
©
-3
©
©
CO
eo
©
©
cn
©
oo
-3
©
00
©
©
00
©
CO
©
en
i- 1
Span-Height Index
00
to
©
00
-3
h- 1
-3
0k
oo
CO'
oo
~3
os
-3
en
-3
eo
-3
-3
-a
-3
OS
©
00
-3
-3
©
-3
CO
CO
©
cn
©
©
©
-3
©
Head, Greatest
Length in Cm.
co
co
CO
CO
en
CO
CO
eo
co
to
CO
4^
CO
oo
CO
OS
eo
00
4*.
4^
CO
CO
eo
4^
CO
©
I- 1
4^
eo
CO
-3
oo
co
00
en
Head, Greatest
Breadth in Cm.
CO
eo
to
OS
CO
eo
CO
I- 1
to
oo
to
-3
CO
to
to
en
CO
©
CO
to
CO
CO
to
OS
CO
CO
©
CO
CO
CO
eo
I- 1
CO
H 1
00
to
to
CO
Head, Aural
Height in Cm.
en
•->
en
en
o
en
en
to
en
en
H- 1
en
©
en
en
(-«
en
en
©
en
en
H
en
en
en
l-»
en
i- 1
©
©
en
CO
en
CO
©
en
©
en
en
CO
Cn
CO
en
Head, Circumference
-a
o
00
~3
CO
-3
CO
CO
•4
os
-3
os
OS
-3
00
4*
-J
00
00
o
en
-3
CD
-3
-3
OS
CO
CO
00
to
CO
-3
4^
4*
-3
en
-3
00
to
©
CO
CO
-3
00
co
eo
oo
-3
en
00
I- 1
00
CO
eo
-3
Cn
en
Cephalic Index
to
to
I- 1
i- 1
-a
OS
eo
©
CO
©
os
to
to
en
to
CO
CD
l- 1
-3
en
to
©
eo
to
©
00
00
4*.
i- 1
CO
-3
CO
©
©
©
CO
to
00
cn
--3
©
en
CO
to
©
00
©
©
CO
-3
CO
©
en
Head, Capacity
to
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 23
for these organs to develop and function and therefore the more
vigorous is the physique.
There are numbers of established norms for adults and numbers
of development norms, both of absolute measurements and of
ratios between measurements. Montessori has gathered together
many in her book, and many have been established by investigators
in our own country — Baldwin, Hrdlicka, Boas, Smedley, De Busk,
Wood and others. By the use of these norms educators can pick out
the children who vary from the established standards and who re-
quire special physical care and corrective gymnastics for satisfac-
tory development.
In our anthropological examination we made the measurements
which are generally considered important and computed the sig-
nificant ratios and indexes. We also inspected the child generally
and noted any unusual conditions. The measurements taken and
indexes computed were :
1. Height (standing, sitting, index of stature)
2. Weight (weight-height index)
3. Chest (circumference, vital index)
4. Span of arm (span-height index)
5. Head (maximal length, maximal width, aural height,
circumference, cephalic index, capacity or volume).
1. Height
The height (without shoes) and sitting height of each child
are recorded in Table II. The height may be compared with the
Baldwin norms* which are :
Boys Girls
5 yr. 41.4 in.
51/2 yr. 42.2 "
6 yr. 44.3 "
7 yr. 46.8 "
The index of stature of each child recorded in Table II may be
compared with the Montessori norms which are for five year-old
children 59 ; for 6 year-old children 57 ; for 7 year-old children 56.
5
yr.
41.8 in.
5%
yr.
43.0 "
6
yr.
45.4 "
7
yr.
47.8 "
♦Taken from Baldwin's The Physical Growth of Children from Birth to Maturity. Univ.
of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare, Vol. 1, No. 1. In press.
24
IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
2. Weight
The weight of each child recorded in Table II may be com-
pared with the Baldwin norms which are :
Boys
5 yr. 37.6 lbs.
5i/ 2 yr. 39.6 "
6 yr. 45.2 "
7 yr. 50.6 "
Girls
5 yr. 36.3 lbs.
5i/ 2 yr. 38.1 "
6 yr. 42.6 "
7 yr. 48.0 "
Weight tells, however, very little about the size of the person, if
we know nothing of his height. Eighty pounds is a good weight
for a boy of 13 who measures 60 inches, but a poor weight for a
boy of 13 who measures 63 inches. Considered in relation to each
other, weight and height are indicative of the state of nutrition.
Other things being equal, weight diminishes as malnutrition in-
creases. This relation may conveniently be expressed by dividing
the weight by the height to obtain the weight-height coefficient.
In Table II is recorded this coefficient for each child. The amount
of any child's deviation from the weight-height coefficient for his
age can be obtained by comparison with the Baldwin norms, which
are;
Boys
5 yr. .90
5y 2 yr. .92
6 yr. .99
7 yr. 1.05
Girls
5 yr.
5% yr.
6 yr.
.88
.90
.96
7 yr. 1.02
In order to secure the parents' interest in the children's con-
dition, a meeting was called at which their attention was directed
to the underweight and undernourishment discovered in the group.
The Wood cards correlating ages, heights and weights were
used as a convenient popular means for explaining to the parents
the meaning of norms of development and were distributed in the
hope that an attempt would be made in the homes to bring the
children up to normal standard. By the Wood standards 30 of
the 40 children are underweight for their age and height. Six-
teen children are 10 or more per cent underweight. By Baldwin's
Iowa norms, these children are relatively tall but underweight
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 25
Insufficient food explains very few of these 30 cases; it explains
two, possibly three, in all.
In examining the medical sheet for reasons other than food
and housing, we find that children Nos. 4 and 5, each of whom
lacked six pounds, both had adenoids, hypertrophied tonsils,
enlarged glands, many carious teeth, flat foot and umbilical
hernias. These little girls are twins. The mother takes good
care of them and they have a comfortable home; but the
parents, the father in particular, do not realize the importance
of attending to such physical defects as are here summarized.
The father objected to the examination by the physician. The
children are bright mentally and would be good looking were
they not forced by the condition of the pharynx to keep their
mouths open most of the time. Child No. 6 also has a good home
but we find that his vision is very poor and his teeth in bad con-
dition. Child No. 7 is slightly deaf and has a number of carious
teeth, but more important perhaps is the fact that the mother has
been entirely unable to control the child and does not insist upon
his eating the proper food. He eats what he chooses, when he
chooses, and will eat nothing else. He is extremely nervous and over-
active. More than all else this child needs discipline by one whose
authority he would respect. Child No. 10 is a boy in a deplorable
condition as a result of diseased tonsils and adenoids. He cannot
breathe at all with closed mouth, there is a constant offensive dis-
charge from the nose, the hearing is reduced in both ears and eight
teeth are carious. Child No. 11 has enlarged glands, enlarged tonsils
and very poor vision. Child 12 has adenoids, enlarged tonsils and
cervical glands, defective vision, diminished hearing, heart murmur
and rales. She has a good home, but is an only child, is uncontrolled
and probably eats unwisely. Child No. 13 has enlarged glands,
poor vision, heart murmur, scoliosis, lordosis, and needs circum-
cision. Child No. 14 has enlarged tonsils, carious teeth, defective
vision and flat foot. Child No. 15 has defective vision, enlarged
cervical glands, rales and heart murmur. This child very probably
has insufficient food and poor home care. Child No. 18 has en-
larged tonsils, adenoids and glands, and defective vision. Child
No. 20 has defective vision. He is a very well cared for child
from a well kept home. Child No. 21 has enlarged glands and
-adenoids. The home conditions are poor, and there is a possibil-
26 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
ity of insufficient nourishment. Child No. 22 has visual defects
and heart murmur. The home is poor and ill-kept and there is a
possibility of insufficient food. Child No. 23 has defective vision.
Child No. 24 has but one defect, 12 carious teeth. The child is
suffering much from toothache. The home is poor and badly
kept. Child No. 26 has enlarged adenoids. The home is unusually
good. Child No. 29 has enlarged adenoids and tonsils, is extremely
nervous, but has, in general, been well cared for. Child No. 33
has enlarged adenoids, tonsils and glands, and flat foot, but is
well cared for at home. Child No. 34 has enlarged tonsils, adenoids
and glands, and carious teeth. Child No. 36 has enlarged tonsils
and glands, adenoids, and defective vision. The home is good. Child
No. 37 has carious teeth. No. 40 has carious teeth. No. 45 has en-
larged glands and tonsils, and carious teeth. No. 47 has en-
larged glands, defective vision, carious teeth and heart murmur.
The home surroundings are poor. No. 48 has enlarged glands,
carious teeth and defective vision. The family conditions show
marked poverty. Nos. 51 and 52 have carious teeth; no medical
examination was made. Thus every child who is underweight is
shown to have one or more physical defects and in addition, 18
have a haemoglobin content under 80. Six of the underweight
children were not given a haemoglobin test and five rated 80 or
over.
3. Chest.
The relation between the circumference of the chest and the
height furnishes another measure of the robustness of form. In
a robust adult the chest circumference is close to one-half the
height. At birth it is 8 to 10 cm. in excess of one-half the height,
and at five about 4 or 5 cm. in excess of it (Montessori). The index,
found by the formula 10 ° x chest circumference is ca ii e a the Vital In-
Height
dex. In the adult it is 50, in the child of five it would normally
be greater than 50. The vital index for each child in the group
is recorded in Table II. Eighteen out of 43 children so measured
have vital indices of less than 50, which means a decidedly small
chest circumference; 22 have indices greater than 50, which is
more nearly the expectation; and two have an index of 50, an
adult proportion. One of these is a boy of 6 and one a boy of 5.
ANALYTIC STUDY 0* CHILDREN 27
All but one of the children having a Vital Index of less than 50
are underweight.
The antero-posterior and transverse diameters of the chest (re-
corded in Table II) are significant not only in themselves but
also in relation to each other. The ratio between them, the Chest
Index, which is indicative of chest and lung development is cal-
elated by the formula : 10 ° ' ^1^ d^"' • At birth these
diameters are nearly equal and the index varies from 90 to 100.
The transverse diameter gradually increases over the antero-pos-
terior until in adult life the average chest index is 75, with ex-
tremes of 65-85. The measures and indices for the group are giv-
en in Table II. They vary from 57.62 to 92.3 with an average
of 76.77. The boy with the index of 57 is underweight and has
scoliosis, heart murmur, and enlarged cervical glands. A girl
with a chest index of 61 is also underweight and has enlarged
cervical glands and tonsils, and lordosis. Another child with a
chest index of 61 is much underweight and highly nervous. The
other children all have chest indices within normal range.
4. Span of Arms.
The span of arms or distance between the tips of the middle
fingers on each hand when the arms are stretched out horizontally
is recorded in Table II. The span is interesting principally in
the ratio to the height called the span-height index and calcu-
lated by the formula : 10 ° x HeiLht — ^^ ^ ne ibices found (Table
II) vary from 91 to 105, the average being 97. The span was in
most cases slightly less than the height, exceeding the height in the
case of only four children. There was one index of exactly 100
and 22 indices of 98 and 99.
5. Head.
The exact significance of head measurements and of indices is still
disputed ground in the field of anthropometry. Some investigators
claim to have found that the circumference varies with the nutri-
tional condition of the child. Others have found head size to be
correlated with the intelligence of children. A third school, that
of Karl Pearson, finds little relation between any head measurement
and intellectual ability.
Head measurements must be considered in relation to the size of
the body as a whole, the racial type of the individual and other vari-
28 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
ables. Apart from the question of their correlation with intelli-
gence, it is of interest to study head measurements merely from
the point of view of physical dvelopment. Accordingly, the max-
imal length and width of the head and the aural height were meas-
ured by means of a standard cephalometer and the circumference
taken with an anthropometric tape. A tracing of the shape of
each head was also taken, a band of soft lead being molded around
the head, then placed upon a sheet of paper and its inner surface
used as guide for a pencil tracing. This method is of course, not
exact enough to secure slight anomalies of shape, but it does
give, very satisfactorily for general inspection, the proportions
and gross anomalies. The head conformitor, often used, which
does record the exact shape of the head, is so heavy and so
much like an instrument of torture that it is impossible to use
it with such little children without frightening them. These
measurements are recorded in Table II.
The circumference alone which is frequently given as indicative
of head size, is rather misleading since it does not indicate to any
degree the height of the vault of the cranium, which increases
greatly as brain and head develop. The circumference has value
when considered in relation to volume, but it is not the best index
of volume. It varies in our children between 48 and 57 cm. In a
collation of the findings of various investigators we find limits of 46
to 54.1 cm. for the ages five to seven inclusive. Our maximal cir-
cumference is that of a five year old girl, the child of Russian Jews.
She has a head capacity of 1132 cu. cm. by the Lee formula dis-
cussed later in the Study, and is a brachycephalic. This is the
only circumference which differs from the usual measurements.
The three diameters, breadth, length and aural height are
given in Table II. The ratio between length and breadth, obtained
by the formula — length — : * s ca ^ e( ^ the Cephalic Index. This
index is, in children, more significant than the circumference be-
cause after the first two years of life the proportions of the cranium
remain practically the same, while the circumference increases.
This makes age norms necessary to judge of a circumference and
unnecessary to judge of a cephalic index.
The cephalic index varies normally between 70 and 90. Within
these limits there are three shapes of head : dolichocephalic, or the
long head; brachycephalic, or the broad head; and the meso-
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 29
cephalic, or the intermediate form. If the cephalic index falls
between 75.1 and 79.9 the shape is mesocephalic ; if it falls be-
tween 70 and 75, the shape is dolichocephalic; if it falls between
80 and 86.9, the shape is brachycephalic ; and if it is greater than
86.9, the shape is hyperbrachycephalic. These are figures limiting
the types which are usually found in this country, but there are
several other standards. An index less than 70 or greater than
90 indicates abnormality of some sort. The type of head is con-
sidered a racial characteristic. The people of Asia as a rule are
brachycephalic, those of Africa dolichocephalic, those of Europe
and America range from dolichocephalic through mesocephalic to
to the extreme brachycephalic. The index is used as a basis for
classification of human races and as a key to determine from which
races a given people has originated.
The cephalic indices of our children, computed by the regular
formula are presented in Table II. Among our children we found
all three types of head. Five were dolichocephalic: children No.
2, 4, 36, 23 and 52; twenty were brachycephalic: children No. 1,
3, 9, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18, 20, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 42;
twenty-fbur were mesocephalic: children No. 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13,
14, 16, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 32, 35, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 48, 50, and
54.
All of these children were born in the United States, but among
the parents and grandparents we find the following nationalities
represented: English, Irish, Swedish, Canadian, German, Dutch,
Norwegian, Russian, Bohemian, Moravian and Danish. Among
the dolichocephalic we find English and German ancestry; among
the mesocephalics, English, Scotch, Irish, Canadian, German, Swed-
ish, Norwegian, and Russian ancestry; and among the brachy-
cephalics, English, Irish, German, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian,
Bohemian, Russian and Danish. All of the Bohemians are brachy-
cephalic, one a hyper-brachycephalic ; all but one of the Russians
are brachycephalic, and his index is 79.7; the Norwegians, Danes
and Dutch are represented only in the brachycephalic group; the
the hyperbrachycephalic boy is extremely tall, large in all his pro-
portions, very fair and blue eyed; his parents are Bohemians.
The cranial capacity of these children was computed by a for-
mula of Alice Lee used by Dr. S. D. Porteus in a study of normal
Australians and of feebleminded children in Vineland, N. J. The
30 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
formula is: (length — 11mm.) (breadth — lmm.) (height — 11
mm.) X .000337 + 406 cu. cm. Table II shows the cranial capacity
of each child in the group.
Cranial capacity increases with age up to a maximum which is
set at different ages of adult life by different investigators. Like
cephalic index it is dependent upon stature and race.
Porteus using the Lee formula and measuring normal children
of seven, eight and nine years, gives limits of volume as 1160 and
1480 cu. cm., with a median of 1282. The limits of head volume
with our group measured by the same methods, are 1053, Child No.
31, and 1395, Child No. 27, with a median of 1187. These two
children whose head measurements are the extremes of our group
are both five years old; their index of stature varies directly
with head capacity (54.40-57.42) as also does their head circum-
ference (49-53.5). The general intelligence of the child with
minimum measurements is, if anything, a little more highly de-
veloped than that of the child with maximal measurements.
Just as the results of the medical examination are of greater di-
agnostic value when considered in relation to each other, so also
are the anthropometric findings. In judging a chest development
we learn more by referring to Index of Stature, Vital Index, and
Chest Index than by referring to any one of these indices.
By consulting Table II, we find that Child No. 7 has an Index
Stature of 53.16, a Vital Index of 54.45 and a Chest Index of 89.40.
We know by the first that his trunk is short in proportion to his
legs, by the second, that the circumference of his chest is in good
proportion to his height, and by the third that the chest is too
round, retaining its infantile proportions. By referring to the
medical record, Table I, we find that he has prominent scapulae
and scoliosis. In this case the Vital Index alone gives no idea
of the lack of development of the transverse diameter which the
Chest Index and the note on the protruding scapulae supply. We
naturally refer next to the lung record and find it clear. In judg-
ing of head development we learn more by referring to the Head
Capacity, Cephalic Index and Circumference together than by re-
ferring to any one of them. Let us examine these measurements
for Child No. 3. The head capacity is 1132 cu. cm. This is below
the medium degree of brachycephaly. The circumference is 57,
the largest circumference found in our class and several centi-
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 31
meters beyond standard norms for the age of the child. The cir-
cumference alone indicates a large head, the capacity contradicts
this, the contrast between the two indicates a low vault of the
cranium, and this we find is actually the case, the aural height
being 11.1 cm., while the minimum height in all our children is
11 cm.
On account of the modifying effects of the various anthropomet-
ric data upon each other our findings are of much more practical
use in forming a judgment of an individual child than they are in
forming a judgment of the class as a group. The class averages
for the various anthropometric measurements are therefore not
presented.
IV. SPEECH EXAMINATION
The speech of 42 children in the group was tested, the following
points being considered:
I. Posture of child in relation to speech.
II. Respiration
a. Breath control
b. Chest expansion
Upper and lower chest inflated and deflated
c. Type of breathing: Superior costal, inferior costal.
III. Voice
a. Quality of tone: Resonant, unresonant
b. Volume of tone: Loud, soft
c. Inflection: Range of tone, monotony
IV. Speech
a. Type of speech difficulty
b. Specific record of consonants and consonant combinations
giving difficulty
c. Vowels slighted or non-resonant
The materials used were:
I. Words containing all consonants in initial, middle and final
position
II. Words containing principal vowel sounds
III. Selections for testing reading and articulation (School
readers and story books or pictures)
IV. Franz speech testing material Test No. 75141
V. Set of alphabet blocks
VI. Lewis Phonetic Cards (1915)
VII. Tongue depressors and tongue applicators.
It was found impossible on the basis of the examination re-
sults to divide the class into two groups, one of which contained
32 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
children with perfect speech, and the other of which contained
children with defective speech. In speech, as in other abilities, the
transition is so gradual from normal performance to defective
performance that it does not permit of an absolute dividing line.
The division which seems most practical is that into two groups of
children, one containing children who had no speech difficulties
which could not be eradicated by regular classroom training, and
one containing children who required special training for speech
defects of a more serious nature. Of the 42 children examined,
32 fall into the first group, requiring no special form of speech
training. Ten, however, need expert training for the correction of
speech inaccuracies and negligencies, five of these ten being classi-
fied as defective speech cases. In one of the five a very marked
and persistent infantile stammer exists. This child has great
difficulty in making himself understood by anyone except a little
brother of ^\e years who not only understands him, but talks in
the same way while conversing with him, though using normal
articulation when talking to other people. The only time that
this little boy, Child No. 1 of our series, talks freely, rapidly,
and with ease and apparent enjoyment, is when he is playing with
this little brother and has to make no effort to conform to the usual
method of speech.
The specific speech difficulties found, with number of cases of
each type, were :
Negligent lisping 6 cases
Organic lisping 2
Infantile speech 3
Monotony of tone 8
Faulty respiration 4
Nasality 4
Unresonant voice 7
Inaudibility 2
Negligent speech habits 4
Faulty articulation 7
Poor posture (affecting speech) 2
Total number of speech difficulties encountered 49
Number of different types of speech disturbance 11
In spite of the fact that in this one class of kindergarten chil-
dren there are ten children who need instruction in speech from
a person specially trained in the technique of speech correction,
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 33
the school system provided no teacher for this special type of
work. If we assume that the need is as great in all first grades of
the city as it is in this one under inspection, the failure to provide
such instruction is a very serious omission. In the case of Child
No. 1 it may result in absolute failure to progress in the grades.
V. MENTAL EXAMINATIONS
There are two facts about human beings which have an all-
important bearing on educational practice. The first of these is
a very great similarity of mental ability, the second is an equally
great diversity of mental ability.
The first fact, the great similarity, has made it possible to
develop intelligence scales, like the Binet tests, which in effect
assert that average human beings all have a certain degree and
kind of mental ability at 5 years of age, a certain other degree
and kind of mental ability at 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12 years of age,
etc., as the age increases.
The second fact, the great individual diversity of mental abil-
ity, compels us to realize that among a group of, let us say, 20
children, each having the same level of mental development, we
may have twenty different types of children, each one having
his possibilities of greatest development and greatest success in a
different direction from all the others. One child of the intelligence
level of 10 years may have very good color perception and a vivid
imagination and very poor application and reasoning ability; an-
other child of the same intelligence level may be color blind and
lacking in all invention and yet have well-developed capacity for
sustained attention and good reasoning ability. Various combina-
tions of abilities, disabilities, strengths and weaknesses, make a
class of 20 children of about equal general intelligence a group
of intensely individual characters, each presenting a different
problem.
In our public schools, after the feeble-minded, — those perma-
nently subnormal in general intelligence, — have been discovered
and removed from the general classes, the problems of the teacher
are not greatly simplified by a knowledge of each child's intelli-
gence level. It is essential for the teacher to know much more than
this; she must know for each child which mental abilities are
most apt to yield the greatest rewards from cultivation and which
34 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
mental abilities it is vain to try to develop. She must know why
this boy of good general intelligence does not learn to read, or
does not learn to subtract. In order to obtain this knowledge,
a mental analysis is necessary which will reveal the individual's
mental strengths and weaknesses.
Many psychologists make such analyses, but a method of analy-
sis combined with a method of presenting results equal in pre-
cision and clearness to the method used in presenting the results of
an examination for general intelligence has never been developed.
Rossolimo 17 used a method of expressing the results of such analy-
sis which he called the psychological profile. His method contains
a suggestion of one which perhaps combines the elements of clear-
ness and precision for which we are looking. Rossolimo used a series
of tests ranging over the various mental abilities, scored the re-
sults so obtained and presented them in graphic form. A per-
fect score for the test given for any mental ability was 10; if an
individual made a score of 10 in visual memory, 7 in dispersed
attention, 3 in color perception, etc., the graph would show a de-
pression at the point representing dispersed attention and a still
greater depression at the point representing color perception. The
peaks in the graph would represent strengths of abilities, the de-
pressions in the graphs, weaknesses. A graph consisting of a
straight line would represent, according to Rossolimo, perfectly
balanced mental abilities.
As a matter of fact, though it is possible to produce a graph
showing just what Rossolimo attempted to show by his psycholog-
ical profile, Rossolimo 's graphs fail to do so. They fail because
Rossolimo failed to equate the score values of his numerous tests.
Each group of tests was scored by the same method, ten tests
were given for each mental ability, 1 point accredited for each
success, 10 being the perfect score. There is nothing in this pro-
cedure to suggest that a score of 10 in any one ability tested rep-
resents exactly the same strength of that ability as a score of 10
represents for each of the other abilities. It is easy to realize that
a series of tests devised for one mental ability might demand a
lesser degree of development of that ability in order to secure a
perfect score than a series of tests devised for a second ability
might demand of that second ability in order to secure a perfect
score.
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 35
Claparede 5 recognized the inherent beauty of the profile method ;
he also realized that Rossolimo's failure to equate the scores for
the several abilities completely destroyed the value of the profile
as a record of the comparative strengths and weaknesses of an in-
dividual's mental ability. He, accordingly, suggested a very sim-
ple modification, or rather an amplification, of Rossolimo's pro-
file which makes of it a true psychological profile, showing quite
accurately the strengths and weaknesses in an individual's mental
makeup.
Claparede proposed using a series of analytic tests, Rossolimo's
or others, with a homogeneous group of individuals, let us say,
15 year old boys, arranging the results of each test in rank order
and compiling from the rank orders of the various tests a per-
centile table for each to show what score in each test is made by
the 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100 percentile of the
group. The actual scores made by any one percentile, say the 50
percentile, for the various tests might be quite different, but they
would have the same percentile value for the group. One test
might have a 90 percentile score of 40, another test a 90 per-
centile score of 80. The actual score for the latter test would be
twice that for the first test, but its value as a performance compared
with the performance on the other tests of the group would be
exactly the same as that of the lower score for the first test. From
the complete percentile table computed from the results of a series
of tests given to a homogeneous group, we can learn just what
scores the lowest tenth and the successively higher tenths of the
group attained. We can compare with these findings an individ-
ual's score and learn at once the relation of his performance
to that of the entire group, and can compare his score not only
with the median score for the group, but with the score of each
tenth of the group from lowest to highest.
If an individual made scores equal to the 90 percentile in all of
the tests given, he would be uniformly strong mentally for the
particular group of individuals (15 year old boys, 12 year old girls,
congenitally blind adults, etc.) to which he belongs. If he made
scores equal to the 50 percentile, he would be uniformly mediocre
mentally. If he made scores equal to the 90 percentile in one
test, the 70 percentile in another, and the 30 percentile in another,
he would be of uneven ability, strong in some directions, weak in
36 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
others, and the differences disclosed would be a valuable guide
for the wise teacher. The individual graph, or psychological pro-
file, as Rossolimo calls it, according to this plan, will be made up
from the percentile values of the scores, not from the actual scores,
and the peaks and the depressions in this graph will actually
represent strengths and weaknesses of achievement.
Rossolimo 's profile, supplemented by Claparede's idea of basing
the profile values on percentile values, has opened the way for
clear, precise presentation of the results of a mental analysis, a
presentation in a graph which will truly represent the psychologi-
cal profile. We have adopted this method and have treated the re-
sults of a long series of analytic tests by the plan of Claparede,
presenting the psychological profile for typical children in the
group. (Charts III, IV, V, VI.)
The mental examination of each child included:
1. General Intelligence Tests. An examination and rating
of the general intelligence by two methods :
The Binet Simon Intelligence Scale, 1911 revision 3
The Stanford Revision of the Binet Simon Intelligence
Scale 22
2. Analytic Tests. A mental analysis made by the use of tests
for:
(a) Perception:
(1) Grey (4) Green (7) Form
(2) Red (5) Yellow (8) Position
(3) Blue (6) Length (9) Weight
These are all tests of the perception of slight dif-
ferences, the performance in each instance consisting
of a comparison and matching.
(b) Immediate Memory for :
(10) Words (13) Objects (15) Position
(11) Sentences (14) Forms (16) Pictures
(12) Color
(c) Attention
(17) Visual span
(18) Auditory span
(19) Simple attention
(20) Discriminative attention
(21) Simple attention
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 37
(22) Discriminative attention
(d) Active imagination
(23) Heilbronner
(24) Healy-Fernald Puzzle A
(25) Healy-Fernald Puzzle B
(e) Reasoning
(26) Judgment
(f ) Psycho-motor ability
(27) Steadiness I, right hand
(28) Steadiness I, left hand
(29) Steadiness II, right hand
(30) Target, right hand
(31) Target, left hand
(32) Spirometer
(33) Dynamometer, right hand
(34) Dynamometer, left hand
(g) Learning ability (involving perception, attention,
memory and motor habit formation)
(35) Healy-Fernald Puzzle A
(36) Healy-Fernald Puzzle B
(37) Wiring
(38) String games
(h) Suggestibility
(39) Judgment of length
(40) Judgment of weight
(41) Hallucination of smell
(42) Hallucination of taste
(43) Automatism, taps
(44) Automatism, eye — hand
3. Complex Performance Tests.
(45) Maxfield cube (48) Knox-Pintner cube
(46) Seguin formboard (49) Porteus maze
(47) Line reproduction
We thought it of interest to include in our mental examination
several tests, the performance of which involves too many mental
abilities to permit of their being included in the analytic series.
They are all valuable in diagnosis, just because they do involve a
complex mental activity and bring out characteristic tempera-
mental reactions and fatigue reactions which the analytic tests
38 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFAEB
fail to do. These tests are five in number : the Maxfield cube test,
the Seguin 21 formboard test, the line reproduction test, the Knox-
Pintner 13 cube test, and the Porteus 14 maze test.
1. General Intelligence Tests.
Forty-five children were tested by the Binet Intelligence Scale 3
and also by the Stanford Revision of the Binet Scale. 22 In Table
III are presented the scores in relation to the chronological age.
The Symbol A indicates that the test age and chronological age are
identical ; numbers preceded by + indicate the number of years the
test age exceeds the chronological age, and numbers preceded by —
indicate the number of years the test age falls short of the chrono-
logical age. The same method of scoring is used for the Knox-
Pintner cube test, and for the Porteus maze test, for both of which
age norms have been established. It cannot be followed for the
Healy A as the method of presentation is not comparable.
In the Binet-Simon 1911 series, 14 children scored at age, 18
children scored one year above age, 11 children scored two years
above age, and two children scored one year below age. The
mode thus shifts from the chronological age to one year higher,
with 16 children attaining lower and 11 children attaining higher
scores than the mode.
By the Stanford revision, 25 children scored at age, 16 children
scored above, and four children below age. The mode is at age,
but the distribution favors the excess age, scoring 16 to four.
The Binet 1911 scale shows a better distribution around the mode,
but the mode is one year in advance of the chronological age.
Binet -Simon Stanford Revision Knox-Pintntr Cubt Porteus Maze
1911 Series of Binet-Simon
- Delow Chronological Age
' At Age
* Above Chronological Age
Sooro»-I • *!+£ -i » */ +z -z-f m+i +Z*3+4+5+e+7+a+3+K>+ll -I = *l +Z *3+4 +5*6*7*3
C<m*« Z 14 lo II 4Z5I4 Z t 3 13 7 & 2 4 Z Z Z 3 3 S IZ * II 3 II
Chart I Distribution of Scores in Mental Age Tests
It is gratifying to note that only four children in this class grade
by either scale below chronological age, and that no child is more
than one year retarded. There is a possibility that one child in the
class has subnormal intelligence, but he is handicapped by so many
physical defects that their correction may result in greater progress
than now seems probable.
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 39
2. Analytic Tests.
The scores obtained by each child for each of the 44 analytic
tests are presented in Table III. The Mean and Mean Varia-
tion and the Probable Error and Probable Error of Mean
are represented for each test. One test of imagination, two of
attention, the Winch reasoning test, two learning tests (substitu-
tion method), and steadiness test II, left hand, were discarded as
the result of the mathematical treatment of the results, the P. E.
for each of these tests being greater than half the mean, and there-
fore invalidating the results. The individual scores for each of the
44 remaining tests were then arranged in rank order from the low-
est to the highest. The lowest score for each test was used as the
score for the percentile table, the highest for the 100 percentile
score; the lowest tenth of the series was considered in the per-
centile; the lowest score above this lowest tenth of scores was used
as the 10 percentile; the lowest score above the lowest two-tenths
of scores for the 20 percentile, etc. From this percentile table of
scores for each test (Table IV) the individual percentile ratings
were obtained by translating individual absolute scores (Table III)
into terms of percentiles. For instance, Child No. 3 made in test 15
a score of 28.56 (Table III). By looking at Table IV, one finds
this is the score made by the 30 percentile of the group. Thirty,
then, is the percentile rating for Child No. 3 in this test. The graphs
or psychological profiles are plotted from the percentile ratings.
Each profile represents one child's performance in the series of tests
whose names are given at the top of the graph. A dot opposite the
name of each test indicates the child's percentile rating in the test.
The lower the dot on the graph the lower is this percentile rating
and the poorer his performance. Typical profiles are shown for a
number of children for whom descriptive sketches are also given in
Section VI of this Study.
Our percentile values are computed from the results obtained
from a small group of children. For a few of the tests the number
was as low as 23, though for most of the tests it reached 39, 40 or
more. Though the group was quite homogeneous the percentile
values from such a small number could in no way be considered as
norms. The percentiles were computed in the absence of norms for
such young children, largely in order to make comparable the work
of different children on the series of tests, and to realize fully the
40 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
possibilities of the profile method for mental analysis. Such psycho-
logical profiles as are here presented if based on accurate norms,
cannot fail to reveal the mental strengths and weaknesses of the in-
dividuals they represent, and a series of such profiles will bring
into prominence the differences in mental quality of the individuals
represented. The value of such information to one choosing individ-
uals from a group for a certain kind of employment or profession
is very apparent.
a. Perception
Tests 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 — Perception of Color and Brightness. The first
group of tests was designed to measure the ability to perceive
slight differences in color and brightness. The colors used were red,
blue, green, and yellow. For each of these, five strips — tints 1 and 2,
standard, and shades 1 and 2, Bradley Colors — were mounted, in the
order named, on gray cards, and for each of these, five smaller gray
cards were prepared on each of which was mounted a duplicate of
one of the five colors on the large card. Similar materials were pre-
pared, using five shades of Hering grays.
The tests were conducted as follows : the card containing the five
reds was placed on the table before the child and the five smaller
cards were placed nearer him. The experimenter pointed to the
lightest tint, saying, "Find the red just like this." After the child
had found it, the experimenter pointed to the next tint, giving
the same directions and so proceeded until the five small cards had
been placed. This procedure was repeated with blue, yellow, green
and gray. It was found by preliminary experiments that more than
five colors made the situation so complex that it ceased to be a true
perception test for children of five years. The tests also ceased to be
tests of perception if the child was asked to arrange the small cards
as were the colors on the large card. Binet 3 called attention to a sim-
ilar situation in his test which requires the arrangement of five
boxes in order of weight, pointing out that the power to hold in
mind the idea of serial order is involved as well as perception of
slight difference in weight. The latter ability Binet placed at four
years and the more complex one at ten years. For each of these tests,
20 was credited for each successful matching, the perfect score be-
ing 100. The group percentile score for the 39 children tested was
high, 100 being the 40 percentile score for green and yellow and the
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN
41
Table III (1)
i
2
3
4
5
6
7 8
1 9
10
Sentences £
u
0)
s
PS
2
2
o
o>
m
<
o
<
-p
C
s
>>
03
u
O
01
0)
s
0)
0)
u
O
J3
bo
C
0)
B
u
o
fa
JO
03
O
fa
■4J
'5
u
O
i!
B
5
5
20
40
40
20
40
| 30
| 22.2
66.64
50.00
2|
G
5
5+
60
66
40
100
100
16.66
66.64| 50
| 66.6
66.64
62.50
3|
G
5
6 +
100
60
100
100
60
100.00
33.32
40
| 88.8
66.64
62.50
4|
G
5
7
100
100
60
100
100
16.66
60
| 55.5
66.64
62.50
5|
G
5
7+
60
100
60
100
60
33.32
40
| 44.4
66.64
75.00
•1
B
5
7+
60
100
100
100
60
16.66
66.64
80
| 11.1
83.30
75.00
7|
B
5
6
100
60
60
60
60
40
| 55.5
66.64
62.50
81
B
6
6+
60
60
100
100
100
33.32
66.64
80
| 55.5
83.30
87.50
9]
G
5
6+
20
60
40
100
60
33.32
66.64
50
| 44.4
66.64
100.00
10 1
B
6
5
5+
6+
60
40
40
100
60
"60
100
100
60
100
16.66
33.32
40
|100.0
66.64
100.00
11| G
33.32
100
1 11.1
83.30
12| G
5
6+
100
60
40
40
100
100.00
16.66
80
| 77.7
83.30
100.00
13j B
6
7+
20
60
20
100
100
66.64
80
| 22.2
83.30
50.00
14| G
6
6+
100
40
100
100
60
16.66
33.32
50
| 55.5
66.64
87.50
15| G
6
7+
40
100
40
60
60
100.00
33.32
40
| 22.2
83.30
75.00
16| G
17| G
5
5
6+
7+
60
100
60
100
60
100.00
66.64
49.98
60
60
100
100
60
100.00
33.32
100
| 55.5
83.30
87.50
18| G
5
7
60
100
60
100
100
49.98
30
| 44.4
83.30
87.50
19|
G
5
6+
6+
60
100
100
60
60
60
100.00
49.98
20|
G
5
60
100
100
100
49.98
30
| 44.4
49.98
62.50
21| B
6
6+
100
40
40
100
40
66.64
80
| 55.5
83.30
87.50
22| B
5
7+
60
100
100
100
100
16.66
16.66
50
| 44.4
100.00
75.00
23| B
5
7
100
20
100
100
60
100.00
16.66
83.30
100.00
24| G
6
6 +
60
60
60
100
100
100.00
33.32
60
| 66.6
66.64
100.00
62.50
100.00
25| G
5
6+
40
100
100
100
100
49.98
49.98
20
| 44.4
26| G
5
5+
100
60
60
60
100
100.00
33.32
80
| 11.1
66.64
37.50
27 1
B
5
6+
40
40
40
100
100
100.00
33.32
100
| 44.4
83.30
100.00
28 1
B
5
5+
40
100
60
100
100
100.00
33.32
100
| 33.3
66.64
62.50
29| G
30| B
5
6
6
7
100
20
40
100
100
66.64
16.66
40
| 55.5
100.00
100.00
31| G
5
6+
66.64
32| B
7
6+
100
100
100
100
100
16.66
16.66
40
| 44.4
66.64
87.50
33|
G
5
6+
6+
60
60
100
100
60
60
66.64
49.98
50
| 44.4
83.30
87.50
34 1
G
6
60
60
60
100
66.64
100.00
100
| 66.6
83.30
87.50
351 B
5
5+
49.98
60
| 77.7
66.64
361
G
6
6+
60
40
60
60
60
66.64
33.32
50
| 55.5
66.64
100.00
37|
G
38| B
5
5
5+
40
100
40
40
100
33.32
66.64
50
| 77.7
66.64
50.00
39|
G
7
100.00
40 1
B
G
5
41|
5
42]
G
5
5+
60
40
100
60
100
49.98
33.32
50
| 44.4
66.64
50.00
43! G
5
7+
60
100
40
60
100
33.32
16.66
50
83.30
87.50
44| G
5
7
60
60
60
100
60
100.00
33.32
100
| 66.6
83.30
75.00
45|
G
5
46|
B
4
6
5
47| G
48| B
6+
6+
66.64
62.50
5o;oo
83.30
49| B
5
50 1
B
5
6+
100
60
60
100
60
100.00
66.64
80
| 55.5
83.30
100.00
51|
B
5
6
52 1 B
8+
100
60
100
100
100
66.64
39
100
39
| 44.4
| 37
100.00
42
75.00
38
No of cases
39
39
39
39
39
39
Failure
!
Average
67.1
68.7
68.9
86.1
80.5
60.2
31.1
61.0
| 50
75.76
76.9
M. V.
21.8
22.2
22.2
19.1
19.9
26.7
12.4
18.7
! 15.7
10.71
15.8
P. E.
18.7
18.7
18.7
16.2
16.8
22.6
10.5
15.8
| 13.3
9.07
13.4
P. E. M.
2.9
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.7
3.6 | 1.6
2.61
2.1
1.39
2.18
42
IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
Table III (2)
12 13
u |
15
16
17
18
19
20
20 |
21
22 | 23
N
a
Xi
S
2
IS
o
2
'o
o
2
o
V
•r-1
O
u
o
fa
c
o
8
fa
o
u
-P
o
fa
c
3
ft
m
CO
>
c
d
ft
03
>>
u
5
S
<
9)
ft
a
03
G
o
'+»
c
cu
■5
<
to
>
'■5
a
«!
•2-C
C to
<
.8
.5>>
. s
5
ft
J
35
g
o
■+»
a
tu
•(J
>
a
a
£'*
G co
<
u
<i>
G
G
S
'3
H
1|
28.56
20
14.28| 50
2.50| 1.53|
.97
.72|
.72|22
2| 33.33|
27.15
40
14.28| 30
80
80
3.03| .79|
2.24
•74|
.72(26
31100.00|
28.56
40
28.56| 80
80
40
5.00| 1.80
3.20
.71
.75118
4|
o 1
14.28
40
57.12| 40
100
60
5.00| 2.50J
2.50
-1
|16
6|
33.33]
28.56
20
42.84
100
80
60
2.27| 1.63
.65
1
6J
100.00)
42.84
40
14.28
40
80
20
2.00| 1.00
1.00
.64
.47134
7|
40
60
2.17| .81
1.36
.57
.52|29
8|
100.00
42.84
40
42.84
40
60
60
4.34| 1.50
2.84
.77
.67132
9|100.00
28.56
40
57.12
80
60
60
4.00| 1.28
2.72
1.00
• 96|37
10| !
28.56
40
28.56
80
60
2.30| 1.26
1.04
.48
.68|34
11|100.00
42.84
80
57.12
30
60
o
4.17| 1.40
2.77
.66
.65|22
12| 33.33
14.28
20
14.28
50
o
3.39| .50
2.89
.64
.72(29
13 1 66.66
14| 66.66
28.56
40
28.56
40
2.50| 1.10
1.40
.92
1.15|34
57.12
60
57.12
40
80
60
2.38| .95
1.43
.90
.91|34
15!
100.00
42.84
40
42.84
50
133
16|
40
1.81| 1.38
.48
.83
.70)24
17|100.00
57.12
40
100.00
80
80
40
4.00| 1.63
2.37
1.04
.85|36
18| 33.33
42.84
40
28.56
40
60
100
5.00| 1.50
3.50
.73
• 50|22
19] 66.66
57.12
40
42.84
60
40
2.501 2-50
.69
.55|31
20! 66.66
57.12
40
28.56
70
5.00| 1.20
3.80
.91
.68|35
21| 66.66
42.84
20
57.12
30
80
40
5.00| 2.20
2.80
.90
.83)38
22| 33.33
74.40
60
75.68
60
60
80
3.391 1.20
2.19
.70
.71|28
231100.00
42.84
60
28.56
100
80
60
3.331 1-69
1.64
.62
.48124
24|100.00
42.84
80
28.56
80
80
40
3.03| 1.20
1.83
.76
.74)27
25 1 66.66
100.00
60
42.84
100
80
60
4.17| 1.30
2.87
.89
.67|34
261 66.66
28.56
60
28.56
2.38| 1.60
.78
.79
.64(26
27| 33.33
28.56
40
28.56
100
4.75| 1.48
3.27
.72
.50)25
28| 66.66
42.84
40
57.12
40
60
60
1.33| .83
.50
.83
.47)26
29 1
40
28
30| 66.66
28.56
60
14.28
40
60
60
7.69| 3.26
4.43
.99
.76
28
31| 66.66
1.701 1.28
.42
.55
.55
32f 66.66
42.84
20
42.84
50
60
40
5.00| 2.32
2.68
.55
.21
19
331 66.66
28.56
20
42.84
40
80
80
2.43| .97
1.46
| .73
.51
29
34| 66.66
57.12
40
14.28
40
60
60
3.70| 1.25
2.45
| .82
.58
29
35| 66.66
28.56
20
40
1 o
3.81| 2.00
1.81
1 -71
.36
36
36|100.00
42.84
40
42.84
60
60
| 60
2.94| 1.81
1.13
| .61
.57
17
37|
38| 33.33
42.84
20
57.12
40
| 40
4.00| 1.53
2.47
| .30
.56
36
39]
| 90
20
32
40 1
41
42 1 66.66
57.12
| 60
57.12
30
1 20
| 60
3.33| 1.81
1.52
.75
.63
26
43| 66.66
42.84
| 20
| 30
| 60
| 20
2.85| 1.07
1.78
| .63
| .79
13
44| 66.66
57.12
| 20
42.84
| 50
| 60
| 60
2.94| 1.53
1.41
| 1.25
.38
20
45
1
46
1
47
i 1
48
| 20
| 40
1
49 1
50 1 66.66
1
28.56
| 20
57.12
| 50
| 60
| 40
2.00| 1.08| .92
| .54
.22
24
511
1 1
I
52 | 66.66
42.84
|100
85.68
| 90
| 80
| 40
| 5.00| 2.27| 2.73
| 1.04
| .50
29
No. | 36
37
[ 37
37
37
28
| 28
40 140 |40
[38
[38
42
F. |
1
1
A. | 65.7
| 42.45
| 41.60
40.91
| 55.5
168.57
| 52.1
| 3.44| 1.50| 2.0
| .78
.62
1 .14
1 -11
| .01
28.2
4.9
4.18
.63
M.V.| 19.25
P.E. | 16.26
| 11.3
| 9.55
| 1.51
| 14.25
| 12.04
| 17.73
| 14.99
| 19.6
1 16.6
| 6.3
1 12
| 16.1
| 1.03| .38| .9
.14
| 10.1
| 13.3
,87| .32| .7
.11
PEM
2.67
| 1.98
2.46
| l.S
| 2.5
' .12| .051 .1
.01
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDKEN
43
Table III (3)
| 24 25
26
27
28
29 | 30
31 1
32 |
33 | 34 |
35
36
u
CD
a
3
2
IS
o
<
■
>>
H
5
n
i
«
■
>,
sa
<u
H
4*
a
CD
B
M
rH
01
8
a
CD
+a
03
h3
CO
CO
CD
-3
s
03
CM
CO
CO
9
g
CD
3
+5
03
PS
-p
CD
CO
u
cfl
H
u
EH
u
CD
■E
CD
s
o
u
a
qq
f
CD
s
s
d
a
>i
Q
u
CD
■(J
CD
1
O
S
a
c
>>
Q
<
>>
CD
M
CD
w
1 | F
| FIO
| 1
1
| 1
1 i !
902 |
7.5| 8.5 |
383.0|
769. Of
2 |212
| F| 60
2
1 |
3.0 ] 1
i 1
656 |
9 | 7 |
40
3 | F
F | 20
1 1
1 1
8.0 | 2
2 1
656 |
9 | 8 |312.0| 54
4 |125
|211
80
2
1
14.0 | 3
2 1
720 |
7 | 7 |
|111
5 | F
| 85
70
1
1
15.0 | 3
3 1
902
7 | 7
[204
6 | F
F
50
1
1 |
11.5 | 2
2 1
1066 |
10.5| 9 |
222.0|222
7 | F
1 F
1
1
8.0 | 3
1 o |
492 |
7 |10 |
| 66
8 | 75
145
30
3
2 1
11.0 | 4
3 1
1148 |
11 |12 1
566.0[232
9 | F
F
40
1
1
7.5 | 2
1 |
984
8 | 7 h
222.0|175
10 |170
F
50
| 3
1 |
492
6 | 5 |
500.0| 60
11 | F
F
80
1 |
1 |
7.0 | 2
1
902 |
8 | 6 |250.0| 66
12 | F
F
60
1 1
2.0 |
720 |:
11 | 9 |
147.0| 55
13 | F
280
80
3 1
3 1
9.5 | 3
3 1
1312 |"
13 |12
|178
14 | F
F
60
1 |
1
3.0 | 3
2 1
738 |
9 | 8 |]
178.0| 66
15 |100
60
2 1
15.0 | 2
401 |
8 | |500.0|178
16 | 80
90
1 (
1
7.0 | 3
3 1
820 |]
L0 | 9 |]
L19.0|166
17 | F
115
50
1 |
1 |
6.0 | 3
2 I
656 |
6 '
6 |500.0|2
5 1666.01
17
18 | F
142 |
20
1 |
2 1
7.0 | 2
3 1
720 |
6 1
61
19 | F
F
50
1 3
2 I
401 |
5 | 5 |250.0|
4
20 | 56
F
80
2 1
2 I
9.5 | 3
2 I
656 |
6 | 5 |
83.31
74
21 |123
110 |
50
1 |
1 |
10.0 | 2
3 1
720 |
7 | 6 |126.0| 83
22 | F
56 |
70
1 |
o 1
7.0 | 1
i M
L168 |
9.5| 9.5 |]
.75.01 200
79.0| 66
23 | 35
120
50
o 1
o !
3.0 | 4
4 1
24 | 68
F |
90
1 |
2 1
L3.0 | 3
l |
984
8 |10 |125.0| 74
25 | F
F
30
2 1
2 1
7.0 | 3
2 I
656 |
3 | 4 |
|250
L66Tor~58
L33.0| 55
26 | 40
F
2 1
1
9.0 | 3
2 1
738 |
5 | 6 |
27 | 95
F
o 1
1 |
1.0 | 1
1 |
460 |
6 | 7 |]
28 |130
F
70
1 |
1 |
8.0 | 2
1 1
984 |
L0 | 9 |:
256.0] 51
29 | F
1 |
1 |
| 2
1 |
246 |
5 | 5 |
o 1
30 |120
F !
90
1 |
1 |
9.5 | 2
2 1
574 |]
.2 | 7 |357.0|200
31 |
1 1 1
32 | 19
250
100
o 1
j
1
738 |]
.2 |10 |526.0|125
33 |173
438
60
o 1
o 1
5.0 | 1
1
738 |
7 | 9 [277.0]
62
34 | F
81 |
40
2 1
1 1
7.0 | 2
2 I
720 |1
1 |10 |333.0|
35 | F
F |
80
o 1
6.0 | 3
3 1
656 |1
1 | 9 |
|222
36 | F
F |
40
2 1
1 1
8.0 | 3
2 1
902 |
6 | 6 |333.0|222
37 |
1 1 1
38 | F
F |
60
2 1
2 1
| 2
1 |
246 |
6 | 5 |
| 69
39 |
1 1
40 |
o 1
o 1
| 2
2 1
1 1
41 |
1
42 |107
F |
50
o 1
| 2
2 1
984
6 | 5 |196.0|
70
43 | F
F |
70
1 |
2 1
2.0 | 2
2 1
574 |
8 | 5 |250.0|
44 | F |
64 |
40
1 |
1
8.0 | 2 |
2 1
492 |
5 | 5 [100.0]
45 |
1
1 1 1
46 |
! |
1 1 1
47 | |
1 |
1 |
6.0 | 1 |
o 1
1 1 1
48 | |
1
49 | |
1 |
1 |
5.5 | 2 |
2 1
I
50 | F |
109
60 |
1
5.0 | 2
1 |
656
6 | 8 [166
58
51 |
1
52 |171 |
395 |
70 |
3 1
3 1
8.0 | 3 |
3 |1
394 |1
| 8 |500.0|
No. | 18
17 |
36 |
42 |
41 |<
12 [43 |
43 |
40 \4
[40 |
40
40
P. | 23
23 |
1 1 7
A. |101 |
164 *
54.1|
1.19|
1 |
6.47| 2.21|
1.74|
760 |
7.8| 7.33|3
07.09|125
52.821 65
29.181 55
M.V. | 41.9
33 |
20.2|
.64|
.56|
3.29| .69|
.77|
204.01|
1.9| 1.41J1
1.6| 1.19|1
P.E. | 35.4 |
28 |
17.1|
.53|
.47|
2.48| .58|
.65|
172.44|
PEM. | 8.35
7 1
2.8|
.08|
.07|
.42| .08|
.09|
27.22|
•25| .19|
22.51| 9.3
44
IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
Table III (4)
| 37 38 | 39
40
41 | 42
43 | 44
45 46 | 47 | 48
49
501 51
u
S
3
2
IS
o
H
i
O
CO
w
i
V
»J
J>
c
i
3
4J
M
1
a
a
T3
3
i-a
i
e
.2
a
•
a
o
3»
w
OB
ft
H
s
.52
cc5
S
o
3
41
>>
a
.2
"+»
S 1
o ts
fw
<
3
o
2
3
u
a
o
M
s
u
o
B
.2
o
O
u
ft
V
«
V
c
V
a
S
73
u
O
a
-a
3
o
u
O)
-p
c
■
X
o
c
CO
3
t
o
1 | 50 | | F| F| S| N| 50.00| 51 |27.5| A| — 1
+11 -
2 | 50 |60 |32 | 10| 0| 0| S | S | 83.30|185 |20.0| A| A
+ 5| +2
3 | 50 |80 | | 10| +| +| S| S| 50.00|178 |47.5| + 1| +1
+2| +1
4 |100 |60 | | 10
0|
S| N |100.00| 69 |65.0| +2| +1
+ 2| +2
5 |100 |60 132 j 10
0| +
S| N|100.00|277 |85.0
+2| +1
+2| +1|
+9| A
+2| +4
6 | 50 | |32 | 10
01 +
S | S | 33.32|256 |55.0
7 I 50 | | |
1
| | 33.32| |20.0| + 1| A
1 A
+2
8 | 50 |60 |25
+1 +
S | S | 83.301333 |55.0| A | A
—1
+5
9 |100 (80 |32 10
+1 +
S | S | 66.64|172 |70.0| +1| A
+ 1
A
10 | (20 |23 | 10
0|
S | S | 16.66|119 ]17.5| — 1| — 1
—1
+ 1
11 | 50 |20 |32
10
+1 o
S | S | 16.66| 76 |42.5| +1| A
A
+2
12 | |40 |32
10
+1 o
S | S | 66.64| 83 |25.0| +1| A
A
+2
13 | 50 |40 |32
10
0|
S | N| 66.64|200 |70.0| +1| A
—1
+4
14
|100 |40 |32
101 S | S | 33.32| 78 |70.0| A | A
A
+ 4
15
1 50 |
S | S | 83.30|238 |87.5| A | A
A
+ 2
16 | |80
| | | | | 66.64| 61 | | +1| A
+ 5
+4
17 |100 |80 |32
10| 0| 0| S| N| 83.30|222 |90.0l +2| +2
+9
+5
18 |100 |20 |18
101 +1 0| S | N|300. 00(151 (55.01 +2| +1
+ 1
+4
19 | 50 | |32 10| +| +| S| S| 33.32| 51 |60.0| + 1| A
+5
+3
20 |100 |40 |32 | F| +| +1 S| SI 83.30(192 |45.0| +1| A
+ 1
+4
21 |100 |40 |32 | 10| +| 0| S | S | 83.30|274 |85.0| A| A
+4
+7
22 [100 |60 |32 | 10| 0| 0| S | S|100.00|263 |60.0
+2| +2
+ 1
+ 8
23 | |20 |32 10j +1 01 S j S |100.00|270
+ 2| +1
+ 10
+ 4
24 |100 |20 (32 | 10| +| 0| S | N | 83.30|333 |37.5
A| A
A
+ 3
25 | |20 |32 | 10| 0| 0| S | S | 66.64|217 |35.0
A,
A
+ 5
+ 1
26 |100 |40 |32 10| + | +1 S| S| 33.32| 71 |25.0
+ 1
+ 1
A
+ 1
27 | 50 |40 |32
101 +1 01 S | N| 33.32(227 [40.0
+1
A
+1
+2
28 | |20 |
F | +| 0! S | N| 66.641 98 |55.0
A
A
A
+ 5
29 | | |
| | | | | 16.66| |12.5
+ 1
A | A] A
30 |100 |40 |32
10| 0| Of S | N| 66.641 87 |70.0
+ 1
A
+ 10| +3
31 | 50 |
| | 83.301175 |
+ 1
+ 1
1
32 (100 |80 |32
10| +| 0| S | N| 50.00| 80 |12.5
—1
—1
—2
—1
+2
33 |100 |60 |32
10] 0| +| S | N| 83.301166 |27.5
+ 1
+ 1
+2
34 | 50 120 |32 10| S| S| 83.30| 69 |85.0
A
A
A
+3
35 |100 |20 |32 | 10| +1 +1 S| N| 16.661 |15.0
A
A
A
—1
36|100 |20 |32 | 10| +| +| S| S |100.00|142 |65.0
A
—1
A
+2
37 | | | | | | | | | | |
38 |100 |40 |32 | 10| +| + | S| S |100.00| 66 |27.5
A
A
+2
+4
39 1 | |17 I 10|
| 66.64|
+2
+ 1
+2
+ 2
40 | 50 | |
| | |
41 1 | 1 II
1 1 1 1 1
42 |100 |20 |32 | 10|
0) S | N| 33.32| 75 1 50 .
A
A
+2
+ 2
43 | 50 | |32 | 10|
0| S | N| 33.32|156 |30.0
+2
+1
A
+2
44 |100 |40 |28 | 10|
0| S | N|100.00| 45 (60.0
+2
+ 1
+ 11
+ 1
45 | | | ||
1 1 1
46 | |
III |
47 |100 ( | | |
| | |100.00|
+ 1
+ 1
+ 11
+4
48 | | | | | | +1| A
+ 1
—
49 | |
| |
1 1 1 1
50 |100 |40
32 | 10| +
S | N| 66.64|175 )30.0
+ 1
A
+2
+ 4
51 I 1
1
| |100.00|
52 |100 |80
32
10|
1 o
S| N|100.00|200 |70.0
+2
+ 1
+4
+4
No. | 38 |36
38
88
| 45 | 42 (38
F. | 4 | 3
3
8
II 1 3 |
A. | 70 |41.8
29
| 67.02|158 |48.7
M.V. | 22 |18.7
4.5
| | 23.35| 70.9 |19.8
P.E. | 19.3|15.36
3.8
1
| | 19.74| 59.93|16.7
PEM. | 2.8| 2.67
.64
1 1
| 2.94| 9.6 | 2.6
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN
45
+
o £>.
: +
+
+
; +
+
+
© -a
ov to
© O
51 (O W
© C5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
h-lOO
•t*. ko
oo ^
©! to ©
o o> ©
tol toleo
©! to ,m
L J.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
to 00
-3 oo
Healy-B
Judgment
Steadiness
1-R
Steadiness
1-L
Steadiness
2-R
Target-R
Target-L
Spirometer
Grip-R
Grip-L
Healy — A
Healy-B
Wiring
String Game
Suggestion
Length
Suggestion
Weight
Suggestion
Odor
Suggestion
Taste
Automatism 1
Automatism 2
Maxfield Cube
Form Board
+
+
+ + +
+
+
+ +
+1+
CK 00
Line Reproduc
Binet+
Stanford
Revision-f
Knox-Pintner
Cube+
Porteus
Maze-I-
© © o o o
wt o t~> t_? <~j i-»i
© © © © © rslue
Percentiles
Gray
Red
© ©' ©
©i ©i©
to l->
(-• -a
INS' 00
On © 00 00
) oo
Green
Yellow
Lines
Form
Position
© oo 1 oo'oo 00
Weight
Words
Sentences
Color
Objects
Forms
Position
Pictures
Visual Span
Auditory Span
Attention
Simple
Attention
Discrim.
Attention
Simple
Attention
Discrim.
Heilbronner
Healy-A
g
46 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
70 percentile score for red, blue, and gray. In no case was there a
complete failure though the percentile was 20 for red, blue, green,
and gray. The individual scores and percentile scores are presented
in Tables III and IV.
Test No. 6. Perception of Differences in Length. The method of
perception of small differences was again used. A gray card 2 1/2 by
4!/2 inches had drawn on it six vertical lines % of an inch apart, the
shortest 1 inch long and the others increasing regularly in length
by % of an inch. The child was given six small gray cards IV2
inches wide, on each of which was drawn a line similar to one of the
six lines on the large card. The procedure was exactly that used in
the color perception test. The examiner pointed to the shortest line
on the card containing the six lines and then to the other lines in
order, saying each time, ''Find the line just like this."
A credit of 16.6 was given for each line matched correctly, 100
constituting a perfect score. Thirty-nine children were again tested,
the 70 percentile group making a perfect score, the 50 percentile a
score of 66.44 and the percentile 0. The average score was 60.2, M.
V. 26.7, P. E. 22.6. The group did not succeed so well here as with
the color perception tests. (Tables III, IV).
Test No. 7. Perception of Differences in Form. Again the method
of perception of small differences was used. A series of six gray
figures was mounted on black cardboard. The first figure was a IV2
inch square. The base lines and heights of all figures were 1%
inches but the upper side diminished by 1/16 of an inch in each
succeeding figure, both ends of the line being shortened by 1/32 of
an inch. Similar figures were drawn on small cards, one figure on
each card. These were given to the child and he was asked, as in the
preceding tests, to ' ' find one like this ' ' as the examiner pointed suc-
cessively to the mounted figures on the large card.
Credit of 16.6 was given for each correct matching. Thirty-nine
children were tested, and the perfect score of 100 was reached only
by the 100 percentile of the group; the 50 percentile scored 33.32
and the 20 percentile score was 0. The average score was 31.19, M.
V. 12.4, P. E. 10.5. The children found greater difficulties in this
test than in any of the preceding tests. (Tables III, IV,).
Test No. 8. Perception of Position .The materials were again five
lines. These were two inches in length, drawn above a base line on a
strip of gray cardboard 12% inches long. The first line was hori-
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 47
zontal and parallel with the base line; the second was tilted up at
the left end ; the third, fourth and fifth lines were increasingly tilt-
ed. Five lines similarly placed were drawn on smaller cards. As in
the other perception tests, the child was asked to find a line like each
in turn as it was pointed out. The test was repeated with lines in
the vertical direction.
A credit of 10 for each matching was given. Thirty-nine children
were tested, the 90 percentile making a perfect score; the 50 per-
centile, 50, and the percentile 20. The average score was 61, M. V.
18.7, P. E. 15.8. (Tables III, IV).
Test No. 9 Perception of Weight. This was quite a difficult per-
formance for the little ones. Tin pill boxes were used which were
weighted with shot. One, weighing ten grams, was used as a
standard weight and nine others compared with it; four of these
were heavier, increasing by amounts of two grams each; four were
lighter, decreasing by amounts of two grams each; and one weigh-
ed the same as the standard. The child was given the standard
weight in one hand and then handed another and asked, "Is this
heavier, lighter or just the same ? ' ' When the opinion was given, the
child was allowed to place one box on one pan of a scale and one on
the other pan to see whether his judgment was correct. Without this
procedure it was hard to hold the children's attention to the test;
with it, they greatly enjoyed the game. There were nine judgments,
11.1 being the credit for each. No one child attained a perfect score
and only one of the 37 children tested reached the 100 percentile,
88.8. The 50 percentile score was 55.5 and the percentile score 11.1.
The average score was 50, M. V. 15. 7, P. E. 13.3. (Tables III, IV,).
b. Memory
The tests for memory were six in number. They tested the im-
mediate memory span for number words, for words connected in
sentence form, for colors, for familiar objects, for geometric forms,
for position, and for pictured objects. It was necessary to confine
the word memory tests to the oral field as the children had not yet
learned to read.
Test No. 10. Memory for Words. The span for number words was
tested as follows. The examiner said to the child, ' ' I am going to say
some words and after I finish I want you to say just what I have
said. ' ' Then she pronounced two numbers, and if the child succeed-
48 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFAKE
ed in repeating them, she tried a series of. three, then of four and
so on, increasing each time by one until the child made an error in
repeating. He was then given two more chances to repeat a list of
equal length and if he succeeded, a list longer by one word was
used. When the child failed three successive times to repeat lists of
equal length, his span was placed at the longest list which he had
succeeded in repeating. As lists containing six numbers were repeat-
ed by four children in the group and as a span for five numbers ia
shown by Binet 3 to be an eight year performance and a span of
three, a four year performance, six was considered a perfect span
for our children and a score of 100 was assigned to it, 16.66 being
given for each number repeated correctly in the longest series re-
peated perfectly. Forty-two children were tested. The 100 percen-
tile made a perfect score; the 60, 70, 80 and 90 percentile made a
score of 83.3 (span 5) ; the percentile score was 49.9 (span 3) the
50 percentile score was 66.6 (span 4). The average score was 75.7
M. V. 10.7, P. E. 9. (Tables III, IV).
Test No. 11. Memory for Sentences. For measuring the memory
span for words combined in sentence form the group of sentences
prepared by Binet was used. The highest achievement of the group
was shared by eight children, who repeated sentences containing six-
teen words. A score of 100 was assigned to this performance and
6.25 given for each word in the longest sentence repeated. Thirty-
eight children were tested, the 80, 90 and 100 percentiles making a
perfect score ; the percentile score was 37.5 and the 50 percentile
score was 75. The average score for the group was 76.9 ; M. V. 15.8 ;
P. E. 13.4 (Tables III, IV).
Test No. 12. Color Memory. For testing color memory, the mater-
ials used were twelve white cards, 3 by 5 inches, in the center of each
of which a 1 inch square of colored paper was pasted, and a card
5 by 6 inches, on which twelve similar squares were pasted. Two of
the small cards were shown to the child, who was told to look at them
well because he would be asked to pick out these colors on a card
containing these and other colors. The small cards were removed
and the large one substituted and the child asked to point out the
colors which he had just seen. If he failed, he was given two more
chances with two different colors each time. If he succeeded in one
of the three trials, the procedure was repeated with three and with
four colors until the child failed to recognize three series each con-
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 49
taining the same number of colors. His span was taken to be the
largest number of colors he remembered in one of three trials.
Thirty-six children were tested and three proved to be the largest
span reached. One hundred was assigned as the perfect score for 3
and 33.3 was accredited for each color remembered in the longest
series correctly matched. The 80, 90, and 100 percentiles attained a
score of 100; the percentile failed entirely; the 50 percentile
made a score of 16.66 (span 2) . The average was 65.7 ; M. V. 19.25 ;
P. E. 16.26. (Tables III, IV).
Test No. 13. Memory for Familiar Objects. For testing memory
for familiar objects, the following objects were used: book, twine,
pencil, envelope, key, black-board eraser, box, pocket-book, nickel,
ring, bag, and handkerchief. The objects were all placed in a large
pasteboard box. Groups of the objects were placed on the lid of
the box, shown to the child, then replaced in the box while he waited
in another part of the room. He was then asked to pick those he had
seen from the complete group. The procedure followed was identical
with that used for the color memory test. The child was given three
chances with each group containing a given number of objects un-
til he failed in three successive trials with the given number of ob-
jects, one success in any group constituting success with that group.
Thirty-seven children were tested. Seven objects being the great-
est number remembered by any one child, a score of 100 was as-
signed to the span of 7 and 14.28 was accredited for each object re-
membered in the maximal span attained. The perfect score was
made only by the 100 percentile, the 80 and 90 percentile scores be-
ing 57.12 (span 4), the percentile score being 14.28 (span 1) and
the 50 percentile score being 42.84 (span 3). The average was 42.4,
M. V. 11.3, P. E. 9.5. (Tables III, IV).
Test No. 14. Memory for Form. Materials used in testing memory
for form were chosen from the Bradley box of forms. They consisted
ox a sphere, spheroid, cube, ovoid, two cylinders, two pyramids,
circle, cone, square and prism. The procedure was exactly the same
as that used in testing memory for objects. Thirty-seven children
were tested ; five was the greatest number of forms remembered ; 100
was therefore assigned as the score for a span of 5 forms, and 20 for
each form remembered in the maximal score attained. The perfect
score was made by only one child. The 80 and 90 percentiles made
scores of 60, (span 4), the percentles a score of 20 (span 1) and
50 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
the 50 percentile a score of 40 (span 2). The average was 41.6, M.
V. 14.25, P. E. 12.
Test No. 15. Memory for Position. The test for memory of posi-
tion is one used by Rossolimo. 17 Ten white cards, '6 inches square,
were used. These were ruled in nine 1 inch squares. On card 1 a
black dot was placed in the center of the lower right square; on
card 2, a black dot was placed in the center of the middle left
square; on card 3, two black dots were placed, one in center of
middle right and one in center of lower left squares; on card 4,
black dots were placed in center of upper center, middle right, and
lower left squares; on card 5, black dots were placed in center of
upper left, upper center, and lower right squares ; on card 6, black
dots were placed in center of upper left, upper right and lower left
squares ; on card 7, black dots were placed in center of middle left
ai?d middle center, upper right and lower right squares; on card 8,
dots were placed in center of middle left, lower left, upper center
and middle right squares ; on card 9, dots were placed in upper left,
middle center, middle right, lower right and lower center squares;
on card 10, dots were placed in center of upper left, middle left,
upper center, lower center and lower right squares. Squares of
paper ruled exactly like the cards but not containing the dots were
given each child. Card 1 was shown to him and he was told to re-
member where the dot was because he would be asked to draw it on
one of the papers. The card was removed and the child drew the dot
on the ruled sheet. This procedure was repeated until all cards were
shown.
Thirty-seven children were tested. No children succeeded in re-
membering the positions of the dots on cards 8, 9, and 10. There-
fore the score of 100 was given for success with the first 7 cards and
14.28 assigned for each card successfully reproduced. Only one
child made a perfect score ; the 70. 80, and 90 percentile scores were
57.1 (four cards) the percentile was and the 50 percentile was
42.8 (three cards). The average score for the group was 40.9, M. V.
17.7, P. E. 14.9. (Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 16. Memory for Pictured Objects. Material for testing
memory for pictured objects was found ready-made in a game con-
sisting of 72 little colored pictures of familiar objects such as a
horse, cat, kite, doll, table, etc. and 6 cards, on which are duplicated
the smaller pictures, 12 small ones on each large card. The proced-
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 51
ure used is the same as that described in tests for color, object and
form memory, the small pictures being shown in groups of two,
four, etc. and the child being required to point to the same pictures
on a card which was exposed as soon as the small pictures were re-
moved. Three successive failures in a group consisting of a given
number of pictures constituted a failure and the span was recorded
as the largest number of objects recognized. Forty children were
tested ; four children recognized each object in a group of ten. This
was the best record and a score of 100 was assigned to it, 10 being
given for each picture in the largest group recognized. The 100 per-
centile made a perfect score (span 10), the percentile, a score of
30 (span 3), the 50 percentile a score of 40 (span 4). The average
score for the group was 55.5, M. V. 19.6 and P. E. 16.6.
c. Attention
The tests selected to examine attention were nine in number: a
test of visual span, a test of auditory span, two designed to test
simple attention, two to test discriminative attention, two to test
disparate attention, and one to test the scope of attention. It was
found necessary to omit the last three tests mentioned from our
group results, as the probable errors for all three tests were too
large.
Tests No. 17 and 18. Visual and Auditory Span. The test for
visual span was very simple. Parallel lines were drawn on cards,
two on one card, three on another, four, five and six on still others.
A card was exposed for an instant; it was then removed and the
child asked how many lines there were on the card. This was con-
tinued until his maximal span was ascertained.
The auditory span was judged in a similar way, a series of taps
with a pencil on the desk being the stimulus. Twenty-eight children
took these tests. Five was the largest group of lines and of taps per-
ceived by any child. A score of 100 was assigned to this perform-
ance, and 20 given for each number in the highest span attained.
For both tests the 100 percentile score is 100 and the 50 percentile
score is 60 ; the score for visual span is 20 and for auditory span
0. The average for visual span is 68.57, M. V. 12, P. E. 10.1; the
average for auditory span is 52.1, M. V. 16.1, P. E. 13.3.
Tests No. 19, 20, 21 and 22. Simple and Discriminative Atten-
tion. Two tests for discriminative attention were used ; the first was
a cancellation test. For it the Woodworth and Wells 24 substitution
52 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
test sheet, geometric forms, was used, the child being told to cross
out all the squares. This sheet was used rather than the cancellation
sheets made up of letters or numbers because the figures are larger
and the eye strain, which is considerable in the letter and number
tests, is eliminated.
As two elements of performance, accuracy and rapidity, enter in-
to the discrimination test, the score is expressed in terms of an
index of efficiency obtained by use of the formula
c - w
c + o
X 100
T
C representing the number of figures crossed, W the number of
figures wrongly crossed, the number of figures omitted, and T the
time consumed in performance.
As for many children of five years the act of crossing out, apart
from any purpose in so doing, claims much attention and care, and
as at this age the degree of skill in crossing out varies much from
child to child, the efficiency index for the discriminative attention
test depends not only upon the degree of discriminative attention
attained, but also upon manual dexterity. On this account the effi-
ciency index attained by one child is hardly comparable with that
attained by another, as one does not know the relative values of the
manual dexterity element for the two children. In order to reach a
truer expression of ability in discriminative attention, the examiner
introduced another test which calls for the same manual skill, but
for no discrimination. Twenty squares (there are twenty squares
on the Woodworth and Wells sheet) were drawn on paper and the
child asked to cross them out, the time being recorded. This test was
given in every case before the discrimination test. The index of effi-
ciency was obtained by the formula given above. As errors and omis-
sions were few, the index was in most cases
20
20- X10 °
T
There were several exceptions, however. A comparison of the effi-
ciency index attained by any child in the cross-out test with the in-
dex attained by the same child in the discrimination test will show
a lowering of the efficiency index, due to the added element of dis-
crimination, and this difference in efficiency indices is a truer ex-
pression of efficiency in discrimination than the efficiency index for
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 53
that test, because it expresses the loss of value in efficiency index
due to the added task of discrimination. The greater the loss in the
efficiency index, the less is the efficiency of discriminative attention.
In the case of one child only was there no difference between the
two indices. She crossed out all the squares in both the tests and in
just the same time, 40 seconds. The practice in crossing out in the
first test may have compensated for discrimination time in the
second test. In Table III the indices for both tests and the differ-
ences in the two indices are presented. In the individual profiles
only the percentile rank for the index of the simple cross-out test
and the percentile rank of the difference between the two indices are
represented. Forty children were tested. The 100 percentile score
for the cross-out was 7.69, the 50 percentile score was 3.33, and the
percentile score 1.33. The average was 3.44, M. V. 1.03, P. E. 0.87.
The 100 percentile scores for the discrimination differences was 0,
the 50 percentile 1.83, the percentile 6.40. The average was 2.0,
M. V. 0.9, P. E. 0.7.
Two other comparison tests in simple and discriminative atten-
tion were taken from Rossolimo. 17 These were perforation tests. In a
white card, 8V2 by 4 inches, were punched 102 holes in a regular
pattern. A very heavy piece of felt was placed on the table before
the child. It was covered by a piece of paper and on top of the
paper was placed a perforated card. The child was given a stiletto
and told to punch a hole in the paper through each hole in the card.
The procedure was illustrated for the child and he was shown that
the pattern on the card was reproduced on the paper. His perform-
ance was timed. This test was followed by another, similar to this
but with a greater number of holes, and the child was asked to
punch only those holes which were encircled by a line drawn with
ink. (There were actually 102 of these). The first test is designed to
test simple attention, the second to test discriminative attention. A
slight change was made in Rossolimo 's test for the sake of uniform-
ity. Rossolimo simply uses the reverse side of card one for test two,
encircling 62 of the holes on the reverse side. It was thought better
for the sake of comparison of results to require the child to punch
the same number of holes, and therefore a second card was prepared,
bearing a design, in which the unit figure of the first card was used
a greater number of times.
Efficiency indices were calculated for both of these perforation
54 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
tests by the use of the formula used in treating the cancellation
tests. Thirty-eight children were tested. In the simple perforation
test the 100 percentile score was 1.3, the percentile score 0.48, and
the 50 percentile score 0.73. The average was 0.78, M. V. 0.14, P. E.
0.11. In the discrimination test the 100 percentile was 1.15, the
percentile score 0.21, the 50 percentile 0.64. The average was 0.62,
M. V. 0.14, P. E. 0.11. The difference in the efficiency indices for
these two tests were also calculated, and it was found that the 80
percentile lost nothing in effiiciency index through the added com-
plication of discrimination, and that the 90 and 100 percentile
gained in efficiency. In no case did the difference exceed 0.87. These
results indicate that the increase in ease of punching due to punch-
ing 102 holes increases the efficiency in the second test enough in
many cases entirely, and in all cases partially, to compensate for the
added complication of the task. The differences in the efficiency in-
dices, therefore, are not so good an indication of the power of dis-
criminative attention as are the indices of the discrimination test
itself, and these are therefore given in both tables and profiles.
(Tables III, IV.)
Disparate Attention. The two tests of Rossolimo 17 , used to study
disparate attention, were found unsuitable for such young subjects.
(d) Imagination. For testing imagination one test was used to
study the passive form, the Heilbronner u unfinished picture test,
and four tests to study the active, creative form. These were (1)
the invention of sentences containing two different words; (2) the
arrangement of a picture story, both of which proved unsuccessful
for the purposes of this experiment, and (3) (4), the Healy Fernald
Puzzles A and B.
Test No. 23. Heilbronner. The material for this test consists of 13
series of cards. On all but one card of each series are drawings, in
varying degrees of incompleteness, of some familiar object, and on
one card is the completed representation. The cards of each series
are shown to the child in the order of increasing completeness until
the object is correctly named. The objects pictured are: windmill
and telephone (seven drawings each) ; clock, graphophone, butter-
fly, fireplace and thermometer (six drawings each) ; pencil (five
drawings) ; book, broom, and lamp (four drawings each), pen
(three drawings).
The fireplace and thermometer series were discarded as the com-
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 55
pleted drawing of the fireplace scarcely suggested one, and a ther-
mometer was not familiar to the group. Each of the 11 remaining
series was scored according to the number of pictures in each. A
child who named on the first card the object pictured in seven
suggestions, received a score of 7; a child who failed to name the
same object until the sixth card, received a score of 2, losing one for
each drawing on which he failed to recognize the object. If he failed
on all seven cards he lost seven points. As two series contained seven
drawings each, four series six drawings each, one series five draw-
ings, three series four drawings each, and one series three drawings,
the maximum score was 58.
Forty- two children were tested, making an average of 28.2, M. V.
4.9, P. E. 4.18. The 100 percentile score is 42, the 50 percentile
score 28, and the percentile 13. (Tables III, IV) .
Test No. 24, Healy-Fernald Puzzle A. The Healy-Fernald Puzzle
A 10 is a well-known test of the formboard type. Five small rect-
angles of varying size must be fitted into a rectangular space. The
test is scored by recording the number of seconds used by the child
in solving the puzzle. Ten minutes was the limit of time allowed.
Forty-one children were tested ; 23 failed to succeed in ten minutes.
The 18 who succeeded made an average time of 101 seconds, M.
V. 41.9, P. E. 35.4. The 100 percentile score was 19, the 50 percenti 1 .-;
107, and the percentile 212. (Table III, IV.)
Test No. 25, Healy-Fernald Puzzle B. The Healy-Fernald Puzzle
B 10 is another well-known formboard puzzle. This was also scored
by recording the time consumed in solving, and ten minutes was the
limit allowed. Forty children were tested, and again 23 failed to
solve the puzzle in the ten minute limit. For the 17 who succeeded,
the average time was 164 seconds, M. V. 32., P. E. 28. The 100
percentile score was 56, the 50 percentile 115, and the percentile
438. The achievement in Puzzle A is thus quite superior to the
achievment in Puzzle B. (Tables III, IV).
(e) Reasoning. Three tests of reasoning power were tried, only
one proving valuable for such young children. In the first test the
child was given a simple figure and told to trace it with his pencil,
never lifting the pencil, or never drawing over the line twice. This
was done successfully by only seven of the 36 children tested, and
the test was excluded from the group report. The second test was
56 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFAKE
the Winch 23 reasoning test, which also proved too difficult for such
young children.
Test No. 26, Reasoning. The third reasoning test 23 was better
adapted to the children. It called for a judgment of the validity of
reasoning. The little ones are better able to judge whether someone 's
else reason is a good one, than they are to initiate a reason of their
own. The test is given in the following manner : ' ' Some little child-
ren were asked, ' Why does not grass grow in winter ? ' I am going to
tell you just what ten of them said and I want you to tell me each
time whether the answer is a good one, whether it really tells why
grass does not grow in winter, or whether it does not. One little girl
said, 'Because it is winter now.' Is that a good reason?", etc. The
other reasons given were: (2) Christmas is in winter, (3) Because
it is too cold for it, (4) Because the ground is frozen, (5) We have
fire in winter, (6) It needs hot sun, (7) Grass is green, (8) Winter
is cold, (9) Grass grows in summer, (10) We go to school in winter.
A score of 10 was given for each correct answer. Thirty-six children
were tested; the average score was 54.1, M. V. 20.2, P. E. 17.1. The
100 percentile score was 100, the 50 percentile 60, and the per-
centile 0. (Tables III, IV.)
i. Psycho-Motor Ability
We have included in our series a group of tests, the successful
performance of which depends upon physical and muscular fitness
and also upon a central motor control. These are neither purely
physical nor purely mental tests. It is only by tests of this character
that we can reach an expression of that very essential mental ac-
tivity — volitional control of movement. Five tests were used; first,
steadiness of right and left hand while effort is made to hold them
motionless; second, steadiness of right and left hand while in mo-
tion ; third, accuracy of aim with right and left hand ; fourth, vital
capacity; fifth, right and left hand grip.
Tests Nos. 27 and 28. Steadiness 1. The apparatus used for test-
ing steadiness of hand while an attempt is made to hold it motion-
less is furnished by C. H. Stoelting Company, Chicago, and is call-
ed a steadiness tester. It consists of a metal plate set at an angle of
45°, and a metal stylus with a wooden handle. The plate is pierced
by nine holes. The diameters of the holes successively diminish,
measuring 32, 20, 16, 13, 11, 10, 9, 8 and 7 sixty-fourths of an inch
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 57
respectively. For the test, this apparatus was wired in circuit with
a bell which rang when the metal plate was touched with the stylus.
It was placed on a table in front of the arm the child was to use and
the child was given the stylus and asked to hold it in the middle of
the largest hole without touching the sides. Every time a movement
of the hand brought the stylus in contact with the sides of the hole
the bell rang. The examiner performed the test for each child to
show him how to do it. The child was credited with the smallest hole
in which he succeeded in holding the stylus without contact
during the fifteen seconds. The holes were numbered according to
size, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and so on. Each hole was used first by the right
hand, then by the left.
The average score for the right hand was 1.19, M. V. .64, P. E.,
.53. For the left hand, the average was 1, M. V. .56, P. E. .47. The
100 percentile score for both hands was 3, the percentile 0, and the
50 perceptile score 1. (Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 29. Steadiness II. The apparatus used in this test for
steadiness of hand while in motion, was the tracing board, also furn-
ished by the Stoelting Company. Two straight metal strips are
mounted on glass, the distance between them diminishing from five
mm. at one end to two mm. at the other. A wooden rule is mounted
on the metal strips. A metal stylus completes the apparatus which,
when wired in circuit with a bell, is ready for use. It is placed on
the table directly in front of the child, who is given the stylus and
asked to draw a line from the wide to the narrow end of the slit. If
the stylus touches the metal strip on either side of the slit, the bell
rings. The rule allows a reading of the distance covered before con-
tact is made. The test was made with both hands, the right hand
moving from left to right and the left hand moving from right to
left, the position of the board being reversed for each change of
hand. The score was the longest distance drawn without making con-
tact, three trials being allowed, after an initial practice.
Forty-two children were tested. For the right hand the average
was 6.47, M. V. 3.29, P. E. 2.48. For the left hand the P. E. was
even greater and the results are omitted in the report. The 100 per-
centile score for the right hand is 15, the percentile 0, the 50 per-
centile 7. (Tables III, IV.)
Tests No. 30 and 31. Target Test. For accuracy of aim, or the
target test, we used the apparatus described above for tests No. 27
58 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFAKE
and 28, having the child place the stylus in the first four holes,
according to rhythmic counting, 1, 2, 3, 4. This test was more suc-
cessful than the steadiness tests, and the children enjoyed it more.
Both hands were tested, alternate hands being used for successive
trials, and three trials being given each hand. The score was the
smallest hole entered without contact in the best of three trials.
The average attained by the 43 children tested was, for the right
hand, 2.21, M. V. .69, P. E. .58, and for the left hand, 1.7, M. V.
.77, P. E. .65. The 100 percentile score for both hands was 4, the
percentile 0, and the 50 percentile 2. (Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 32. Vital Capacity. The vital capacity was measured by
the "Wet Spirometer furnished by the Stoelting Company. This
instrument measures the maximal amount of air expelled from the
lungs after a full deep inspiration. The subject is directed to take
a deep breath, then to breathe out through a tube placed in the
mouth and connected with the Spirometer.
By many this may be considered purely a physical test, but the
part played by the volitional element is appreciated when the
test is applied to feeble-minded or to young children. Many of
these children who have excellent lung capacity cannot control
their performance sufficiently to demonstrate their capacity by this
test, simple as it may seem. The records of vital capacity secured
by H. H. Goddard 8 and E. A. Doll 8 from feeble-minded children at
Vineland, New Jersey, and by Smedley 20 and De Busk 7 for re-
tarded public school children, indicate this fact.
Before letting a child use the spirometer, the experimenter
always demonstrated the method in order to give the child an idea
of how to proceed. The effort was made to evoke enthusiasm over
blowing it high. The enthusiasm was easy to arouse, but it was
often necessary to allow the child some time to practice in order to
secure any satisfactory performance. Many found it difficult to
blow in the mouthpiece and allowed the breath to escape around
it, while others gave a series of little puffs, not comprehending that
the cylinder was to be blown up in one expiration. The vital capacity
of many of our group is no indication of the maximum amount of
air taken into the lungs or expelled from them, the record repre-
senting a small fraction of this air. The score in these cases is
really an index of the mental inability of the child to conform
to the rules of the test.
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 59
Forty children were tested, the average score being 760 cc, M.
V. 204.01, P. E. 172.44. Smedley's 100 percentile score for girls
of five is 1150. The highest score obtained by girls of five in our
group is 984, which falls between Smedley's 90 and 100 percentile.
Smedley's percentile score for the same group is 600, while our
lowest scores are 246, 401, 492, and 574. There are four six year
old girls in our group, and all of these have scores lower than
Smedley's 50 percentile score. (Tables III, IV.)
Tests 33 and 34. Grip. The grip was measured by the Smedley
Dynamometer, the instrument being adjusted so that its outer
frame rested against the fleshy base of the thumb and the inner
stirrup against the second phalanges of the fingers. The test was
performed for each child to show him how and he was urged to
squeeze harder and harder while he was squeezing. The children
all put forth much effort, but much of this went into grimaces and
contortions of all sorts. Three trials were given with each hand
and the hands were used alternately.
Forty children were tested, the results for the right hand being,
average 7.8, M. V. 1.9, P. E. 1.6, for the left hand, average 7.33
M. V. 1.41, P. E. 1.19. For girls of five, Smedley's 100 percentile
score for right hand is 13, left hand 11.5. Our highest score for
right hand is 11, left hand 9. Smedley's score for right hand is
3, for left hand 2. Our lowest score for right hand is 3, for left
hand 4. For girls of six Smedley's 100 percentile score for right
hand is 15.5, for left hand 15, while our highest score for right
hand is 13, for left hand 12 ; Smedley 's score for right hand is 4,
for left hand 4, our lowest being 6 for both hands. Our one seven
year old girl gave an eight year 100 percentile score, for the right
hand test. She had no fingers on the left hand.
For boys of five Smedley's 100 percentile scores are right hand
16, left hand 15.5. Our highest scores for the right hand are 11,
for the left hand 9.5. Smedley's percentile score for the right
hand is 4, for the left hand 3. Our lowest for the right hand is 5,
for the left hand 5. For boys of six, Smedley's 100 percentile
scores are 16.5 for each hand. Our highest scores are 12 for each
hand. Smedley's percentile score for the right hand is 5, for the
left hand 4. Our scores are right hand 7, left hand 6. Our seven
year old boys made a Smedley 50 percentile score with the right
hand i. e., 12, and a Smedley 20 percentile score with the left hand,
60 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
i. e., 10. Again we found our oldest children, the retarded ones,
made the poorest scores. Our scores are consistently lower than
those of the Smedley tables.
(g) Learning
As one of the most essential abilities for a little child is the
ability to learn, we considered it important to include a group of
learning tests. Six were used, none of which required ability to
read or to write.
A test requiring the substitution of number names in the color
naming test and one requiring the substitution of numbers for the
names of geometric forms were discarded as too difficult.
Tests No. 35 and 36. Healy-Fernald Puzzles A and B. The Healy-
Fernald 10 Puzzles A and B may be used as learning tests. After
the first successful placing of the blocks, the child is asked to "Do
it again," and this procedure is repeated until the task is
accomplished in the least possible number of moves. The child has
then learned how the pieces should be placed. The number of
trials used in this learning process are recorded together with the
time consumed in the last and perfect placing. The efficiency index
is computed by the following formula : A X T 10 ° = E. I. A =
accuracy and T = time. For an accuracy score, 100 is assigned if
only one trial is required to secure success in the least possible
number of moves; if two trials are used the accuracy score is
-y ; if three repetitions are used the accuracy score is^ , and
so on. The time consumed in the last, or perfect, placing is used as
the time score. Forty children were tested with A. of whom seven
failed entirely. For the 33 who finally learned the exact position of
the blocks, the average efficiency index is 307, M. V. 152, P. E. 129.
The 100 percentile score is 769, the 50 percentile score 250, the
percentile 79. (Tables III, IV.)
The Healy-Fernald Puzzle B 10 was used with 40 children, five
of whom failed entirely. The remaining 35 attained an average
efficiency index of 125, M. V. 65, P. E. 54.9. The 100 percentile
score was 350, the 50 percentile score 83, and the percentile
score 40. (Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 37. Wiring. The fourth learning test was suggested by
the interest the little boys took in the wiring of the apparatus for
the steadiness test. A bell was placed in the circuit with the
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 61
apparatus, and every touch on the metal plate by the stylus rang
the bell. The children were curious to know what made the bell
ring and asked questions about it. The examiner told them she
would show them and then let them put in the wires. She wired the
instrument while they watched, then disconnected it, and told
them to wire it again. There were two dry cells, the steadiness
tester, the bell and the stylus in the circuit. If the child wired the
bell correctly after one demonstration, he was scored 100, and this
score was divided by the number of repetitions required. Forty-
two children were tested, four failed; the average score for the
remainder was 70, M. V. 22, P. E. 19. The 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and
100 percentile wired it correctly after one demonstration.
Although only one demonstration was required, there were
different grades of success represented which do not appear in
the method of scoring used. Some children made and corrected
errors, although they were shown only once. This was a particular-
ly popular test; indeed, it was the invention of the children
themselves.
The test requires accurate visual perception of position and
movement and a considerable amount of concentration, and it is
valuable because it requires no information or understanding of a
description. (Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 38. String Games. The sixth and last learning test is
one which perhaps has never before been used for this purpose. We
have long thought that the Indian string games, which have a
wonderful fascination for many children, might be used as a
mental test. The learning of these games requires a very accurate
visual perception of movement, of position, and of form, and also
considerable control over hand and finger movements. The extent
of almost any child's experience in the games is the familiar cat's
cradle and the saw, and very few children seemed to know even
these. A series increasing in difficulty was arranged and the five
easier games among them used as a learning test with the kinder-
garten group. The material required is simply two circles of string
(the joining being made particularly smooth), one for the
demonstrator's and one for the children's use. The experimenter
sat at the right of the child so that the child could face as she did
while watching her hand movements. The examiner placed the
string on her hand in the fundamental position for most of the
62 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
games, took it off, and asked the child to do the same. Three
demonstrations were given if necessary and if the child succeeded,
a more difficult positon was tried.
A credit of 20 was given for each step successfully copied, a
perfect score, 100, requiring success in five distinct steps. The
series used was: (1) position one; (2) opening one; (3) tent;
(4) spearing fish; (5) house. The little ones were interested in
these games and much pleased when they succeeded in learning
them. Thirty-six children were tested, three failed, the 33
successful ones attaining an average score of 41.8, M. V. 18, P. E.
15. The 100 percentile score is 80, the 50 percentile score is 40, and
the percentile 0. The test will, perhaps, prove useful for older
children because it calls for accurate perception and much
concentration without making any demand upon language or
information of any sort. (Tables III, IV.)
The games were taken from a book by Kathleen Haddon, called
Cat's Cradles from Many Lands.
h. Suggestibility.
The suggestion tests are six in number. Two of them are
designed to influence judgments — one requiring judgment of the
length of lines and one judgment of weight. Two are designed
to produce sensory hallucinations one of smell and one of taste. Two
aim to measure the tendency to establish automatisms.
Test No. 39. Suggestion of Length. The test designed to influence
judgment of length of lines was first used by Binet. 4 The material
consists of a series of horizontal lines drawn on a sheet of white
paper at varying distances from the margin. The first line is one
inch long, the second two inches, the third three inches, the fourth
four inches, the fifth five inches and thirty-two others are each five
inches long. The suggestion is given entirely by the order of the
first five lines. Each line is very plainly longer than the one
preceding it and by the time the fifth line is observed the
suggestion that each line of the series will be longer than the line
preceding it has been given by the material itself.
The procedure is as follows: — one line is shown at a time, all
others being covered. To the child is said, "I want to see how well
you can judge length, how well you can tell whether one line is
longer or shorter than another line. I shall show you one line at a
time and I want you to tell me every time I show you a new line
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 63
whether it is longer or shorter, or just the same as the line you
saw just before." Then the examiner shows the one inch line,
covers it and shows the two inch line, saying, "Is this longer or
shorter, or the same?" Then she covers the two inch line, showing
the three inch line and saying, "Is this longer or shorter or the
same ? ' ', then covers the three inch line, showing the four inch line
and asking the same question. After the fifth line she shortens the
question, saying, "And this one?" Thirty-five children succeeded
in performing this task. Of the 35 only one was entirely
uninfluenced, judging all the five inch lines as "the same."
Twenty-eight children, or 80 per cent, were totally suggestible,
giving no judgment of "the same;" three were unequal to the
task, not having sufficient power of application to complete it.
(Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 40. Suggestion of Weight. The test designed to influence
judgment of weight is also an invention of Binet. 4 The material
comprises 15 black wooden bottles, plainly numbered in white on
the top, 1, 2, 3, 15. No. 1 weighs 20 grams, No. 2, 40 grams,
No. 3, 60 grams, No. 4, 80 grams, No. 5 and the other ten all 100
grams. Again the suggestion is given entirely by the order of the
material. Each bottle lifted, up to and including the fifth, is very
evidently heavier than the one immediately preceding it and that
fact establishes the suggestion. The examiner says to the child, "I
want to see how well you can judge weight, how well you can tell
which is the heavier of two bottles. First I want you to pick up this
bottle (lifting No. 1), then to lift this bottle (lifting No. 2) and
while you have it in your hand tell me whether it is heavier or
lighter than No. 1, or just the same as No. 1. Then put it down, lift
up the next and tell me whether it is heavier or lighter than No.
2, or just the same; then put it down, lift the next and tell me
whether it is heavier or lighter than No. 3, or just the same as No.
3." She proceeds in this way to the fifth and then says, "And do
the same with all the other bottles."
Thirty-five children succeeded in performing this test. Three
failed because they could not judge correctly between the
difference of the first five weights. Of the 35 who succeeded, one
was uninfluenced by the suggestion, judging the last ten weights
equal and the other 34 were totally suggestible, not one judgment
of equal being given by any one of them. (Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 41. Suggestion of Odor. The test material used for pro-
64 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
ducing an hallucination of smell consisted of a little bottle of lilac
perfume and another bottle of tinted but unscented water. The
child was given the perfume to smell and asked what it was. The
usual answer was perfume, but sometimes the child did not know
the word perfume and simply said, "good" or "nice". Then the
other bottle was presented, with the same question.
Thirty-six children succeeded in performing this test. One failed
through lack of attention. Of the 36, 21 (58 per cent) responded
to the suggestion, answering that the second bottle contained
perfume. Fifteen children could smell nothing when given the
second bottle. There is perhaps little doubt that 58 percent of the
children were really suggestible, but there is a doubt that an
hallucination was present in all cases. In some instances it seemed
that the children said they smelled perfume because they thought
it was perfume and thought they were expected to smell it, not
because they really thought they smelled anything. (Tables III,
IV.)
Test No. 42. Suggestion of Taste. The material used for
producing an hallucination of taste was similar to that used for
producing a sensation of odor. Three bottles, one containing very
sweet water, one slightly sweetened water, and one unsweetened
water were used. The experimenter told the child she wanted to
find out how well he could taste, reassuring him by telling him
that what she gave him would taste good. Then with a piece of
absorbent cotton she touched his tongue with the sweetened water,
which he watched her take from the bottle. He, of course, said it
was sweet, or tasted like candy. Then she used the slightly
sweetened water, asking whether he could taste the sugar in that,
and finally used the unsweetened water, asking the same question.
Of the 35 children who succeeded in performing this test 15 were
suggestible, claiming they tasted sugar in the unsweetened water.
There was much greater surety of statement regarding taste than
smell. The children were clearly less suggestible to taste than to
smell. Only 40 per cent were suggestible in comparison with 58
per cent. (Tables III, IV.)
M. H. Small 19 of Clark University, used practically this same
method for testing school children en masse. His results are rather
startling. He found that in using the test designed to produce the
hallucination of odor, 98 per cent of 93 children in the first grade
were suggestible and 95 per cent of 62 children in the second grade
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 65
were suggestible. In the test designed to produce hallucination of
taste 98 per cent of 94 pupils in the first grade and 90 per cent of
70 pupils in the second grade were suggestible. Of course in these
tests there was an added element of suggestibility in the behavior
of the other children of the class.
Test No. 43. Automatism — Taps. The two tests designed to
establish an automatism are borrowed from Rossolimo. 17 The first
we call the tapping test. The child is given a pencil and the
experimenter says, ''I want you to tap with your pencil just as I
do. We will tap together ten times." If the child continues to tap
after the experimenter stops at ten, the automatism is considered
established.
Thirty-eight children performed this test and all of them tapped
at least once more than the ten times. The record for this test
therefore is 100 per cent suggestibility. (Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 44. Automatism — Eye — Hand. The second test of
automatism consists of asking the child to shake hands with his
right hand and to close his eyes while he does so. After the lapse
of about half an hour during which the child has been otherwise
employed, he is asked to shake hands with the left hand. If the
suggestion holds, he will close his eyes as he shakes hands. Of 38
children so tested 21 closed their eyes while shaking hands with
the left hand. Seventeen failed to do so. Fifty-five per cent of those
tested had established in one performance a strong association
between the acts of shaking hands and closing eyes. (Tables III,
IV.)
These last two tests illustrate how easy it is to establish habits,
how rapidly new associations between stimuli and motor responses
can be set up. They show how important it is that parents and
teachers take infinite care while the children are young to establish
desirable motor responses and to guard against the undesirable
which are all too easily established.
3. Complex Performance Tests
Test No. 45. The Max field Cube. The Maxfield cube test is so
named because Dr. Francis Maxfield introduced it, although the
actual patterns used by us may not be the same as those used by
Dr. Maxfield. The cubes used are the color cubes sold by the
Bradley Co. They are one inch cubes and present one blue, one
yellow, one red, one white surface, one surface blue and yellow, and
66 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
one red and white, the colors on the last two surfaces meeting at a
diagonal. These blocks lend themselves readily to the formation of
geometric designs of varying degrees of difficulty. Four blocks
were used, each child being given four similar ones. The blocks
were arranged in a pattern on a table before the child and he was
asked to make a pattern like it with his blocks. The patterns used
were the following :
1. Solid square of one color
2. Square of yellow within square of blue
3. Two white tents or soldier caps, one under the other
4. A diagonal stripe of white on a red surface
5. A chevron of yellow on a blue surface
6. A pin wheel.
Success in forming all six designs gave a score of 100, each
success contributing 16.66 toward the score. Forty-five children
performed the test, the upper 20 per cent making a perfect score,
the 60 and 70 percentiles making 83.3, the 40 and 50 percentiles
66.64. Av. 67.02, M. V. 23.35, P. E. 19.74. (Tables III, IV.)
The test requires in its performance accuracy of both color and
form perception, the ability to perceive slight differences of form
and position in a pattern containing several varieties of both, and
the ability to analyze the total perception into its block units,
concentrating on each in turn to the exclusion of the others. It was
considered too complex to be included in the group perception tests.
Care was taken in that group to isolate as much as possible each
form of perception. Good scores are often made in the perception
tests by children who can do little with the cube test.
Test No. 46. The Seguin Formboard. The older Witmer model of
Seguin formboard was used, the same board as that used by Dr.
Sylvester 21 in his experiments. As our children are only five years
old, the Sylvester norms are not applicable and a slightly different
procedure was adopted.
Each child was allowed to repeat the test up to the limit of ten
times until he had succeeded in one trial in placing all the pieces
without errors. The child was shown that each block fitted into one
hole and one only, and was then told to put them all in, each in the
hole in which it belonged. Before the second attempt the examiner
said, "Now let's try it again, and this time you will do it just as
well, and a little quicker." Sometimes even this mild suggestion of
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 67
/
10
II
l£
Id
17
/4
X
20
Material for Line Reproduction Test (No. 47)
68 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
haste spoiled the accuracy, but often it had no effect whatever, the
child not attempting to hurry.
A record was kept of the number of errors made and the time
consumed in each trial. In computing an efficiency index the
number of trials instead of the number of errors was used as the
accuracy index, and a child's accuracy index was determined by
dividing 100 by the number of trials used before accuracy was
attained. For instance, child No. 3 placed all blocks correctly
without error on the second trial ; her accuracy was 50. Child No. 4
used six trials before attaining a perfect performance; her
accuracy was 16.66. For the time-score the time of the last trial, a
perfect performance, was used. The formula used is E=100 —^- .
A = XT * 00 . ;T = time of last trial. Child No. 3 used two trials;
JN O. L 1 1H1S
time of the last trial was 28 seconds, therefore E = 100 -gg- = 178.
Forty-two children performed the test, three failing to attain a
perfect performance in the ten trials allowed. The efficiency index
ranged from 45 to 333, the average was 158, M. V. 70.9, P. E.
59.9. (Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 47. Line Reproduction. Lines and combinations of lines
were drawn before the child one at a time with the instruction
that he draw one like it. The accompanying lines were used. A
credit of 2.5 was given for Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, (one line figures)
a credit of 5 for Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, and 18 (two
line figures), and a credit of 10 for Nos. 14, 19 and 20 (three and
four line figures, presenting difficult angles). The performance of
this test involves visual perception of the position of lines,
complicated by the reproduction of this perception graphically.
Involving as it does the coordination of hand movements, this test
does not depend upon visual perception so much as upon the
*power of visual perception to direct and control hand movements.
This control may be weak on account of poor visual perception,
or on account of lack of association between the visual perception
and the idea of the movement to be made. Success in this test
might be expected to indicate ability to learn to write, as it calls
for the same combination of abilities in a simplified performance.
If this expectation is realized the test will be a valuable prognostic
test, inasmuch as it will indicate the probable ability of a child to
succeed in school work.
Thirty-eight children were tested; the lowest score was 13.5,
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 69
the highest 90 (attained by the 100 percentile only), the median
score was 47.5, the average 48.7, M. V. 19.8, P. E. 16.7. (Tables
III, IV.)
Tests No. 48 and 49 have been discussed under General
Intelligence Tests, page 38.
Test No. 50. The Knox-Pintner Cube. For this test four black
cubes from the Stoelting Co. Binet set were used. They were placed
on the table before the child and he was given a pencil and told to
"Do just what I do after I have finished." Pintner's 13 order of
touching the blocks was adhered to and his age level scoring
followed.
Success seems to depend upon power of concentration and
accuracy in perception of position and movement. This analysis is
somewhat vitiated, however, by the fact that if the subject happens
upon the trick of numbering the blocks 1, 2, 3, 4, and remembering
the number names of the successive blocks tapped, the process
becomes largely one of verbal memory and is much simplified.
Forty-four children were tested and their age scores compared with
their chronological age. The variation in performance was so great,
ranging from two years less than chronological age to 11 years in
excess of it, that the results throw some doubt upon the claim that
the Pintner norms are correlated with chronological age. The results
are presented in graphic form in Chart 1. The graph shows
three modes. The largest group, 13, made exactly their chronological
age score; only four failed to make a score corresponding to their
chronological age, the other 27 exceeding it from 1 to 11 years.
(Tables III, IV.)
Test No. 51. The Tort ens Maze. The Porteus Maze test, or the
motor intellectual series, as Porteus 14 originally designated it,
consists of a graded series of mazes of increasing difficulty, adapted
to testing children of ages six to 14 inclusive. These mazes are
preceded in the series by three simple tests which call for the
drawing of outline figures between the guide lines, for the years
three, four and five. The figures are diamond, four pointed star, and
maltese cross. Porteus claims that the successful performance of
these tests depends upon prudence and forethought, mental
alertness, and sustained attention. These qualities, he writes, are
left untested by the Binet intelligence scale and he offers this
motor intellectual series as a supplementary test to make more
complete the estimate of the child's mentality. Porteus, however, in
70 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFAEE
his latest monograph on the maze test, September 1919, 15 has revised
the series, substituting new tests for six and seven years of age,
shifting the old five year test to four years, the old six year test to
five years, and discarding the original four year test. The change,
of course, affects the scale most at just the levels used in our
investigation, and our age scores might have shown a greater
correlation with chronological age had the new series been used. .
Our results are scored according to the original Porteus 14 method
and compared with his original norms attained by the examination
of a thousand children in Melbourne, Australia. Three of the 43
children examined by us passed just at age, three one year below age
and the other 37 ranged from one to eight years in excess of their
chronological age. The results are presented in graph form in
Chart I. There are two distinct modes, one at two years above
chronological age, twelve cases, and one at four years above chron-
ological age, eleven cases. These results show little correlation
with chronological age. (Tables III, IV.)
VI. TYPE CASES
In order to gain a knowledge of the social setting of each child,
it was our plan to have a person trained in the work of social
investigation visit each home and learn those facts about the family
life which would help us to an understanding of the child's
characteristics and of the influences which had been moulding him
during the live short years of his experience. No such person was
available, and in order to complete the study, which had already
nearly reached its goal, the writer undertook to make the visits to
the homes herself. As a result, she has in mind in thinking of each
child a picture of him as one of a home group which is quite as
vivid as her picture of him in the schoolroom or in the laboratory.
The picture of B. D. is that of a little child stamping into the house
demanding that her mother give her a piece of bread at once; it
is followed by one of the mother's worried face as she comes to the
office at four in the afternoon in the midst of a snowstorm, in a vain
search for the child, who already at ^ve thinks she can manage her
affairs far better without her mother's aid. E. is thought of in a
cluttered, dirty, hopeless room into which she led the way to
the mother's evident shame. The setting of the picture of D.
is a tiny home, very pretty, in immaculate order, a beautiful
and happy young mother enjoying her baby and finding
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 71
ample time to keep her house and make her clothes, and care for her
three children. " I do not have too much to do, ' ' she said. ' ' I think
it is because I plan my work. ' '
The children were, for the most part, children of working men,
men employed in factories, on the railroads, and in the shops. There
were a few salesmen and one professional man. The majority of the
families lived in small wooden houses with porches, and sufficient
rooms for comfortable living. The house work was done by the
mothers, who seemed to have sufficient money to live comfortably on
this modest scale. Most of the houses indicated that there was a
little more than enough money than was required for absolute
necessities. In many of the homes there was a victrola, a few had a
piano, and most of them displayed articles of various kinds whose
chief function was to beautify the home. There were a few families
that shared their houses with other families and evidently had more
difficulty in meeting the absolute expenses of life. On the whole,
all the children came from homes of about the same economic level.
The individual differences in the home environment, which were
very striking, depended evidently upon the intelligence and temper-
ament of the mothers. All of the mothers were endeavoring to make
the home conditions as comfortable as possible, but some of them
were sadly in need of knowledge which would have enabled them to
succeed, and some of them were lacking in the force of character
which is necessary to bring up a family of children in an intelligent
manner.
There is a current notion that the native intelligence of an
individual decides the social and economic level to which he attains.
Contact with the mothers and fathers of this group of children
leads one to doubt the truth of this theory. Among these people,
who are likely to remain at their present social and economic plane,
were found men and women of superior mental endowment, who, if
their careers had started on a higher cultural and economic level,
would doubtless be filling a place in the professional world today.
It is not poverty of mental endowment which keeps the parents of
this special group where they are; it is poverty of mental
experience. They were not unintelligent, but untutored and
uncultivated.
We are not presenting a statistical report of the social findings,
as their value lies wholly in the relation of conditions in the
individual homes to the quality, mental and physical, of the
72 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
children these homes have sent to the schools. Instead, short
sketches have been prepared for each child, which state the salient
facts gleaned from the family visits and the physical and mental
examinations, and are aimed to present a fairly complete picture
of the individual children. A few typical sketches follow.
Child No. 1. Johnny was the first child brought to the office
because he was an unsolved problem in the schoolroom. The
difficulty was that the child refused to talk, his efforts limiting
themselves to pronouncing his own name. During the first fifteen
or twenty minutes he did all that was asked if no speech was
required. He answered all questions that a nod or shake of the head
would dispose of, but he spoke no word. Finally, when all toys and
games had failed to appeal, he was asked, "What would you like
to do ? " and the answer came in a burst of tears, ' ' Go home. ' ' He
was told, ' ' Of course you may go home if you want to, ' ' and while
he was being comforted and his coat put on he talked a little. This
talk revealed an infantile stammer. In the afternoon the mother
came to see what was going on, and brought her younger boy with
her ; the two children chattered together in a language unintelligible
to others. The younger brother never uses this form of talk except
to Johnny. The mother does not like Johnny to talk so queerly and
tries to shame him out of it. The result is a self -consciousness which
prevents Johnny from talking at all. The mother's attitude is a
little resentful that Johnny is as he is, and a little resentful that
we notice it, and she unconsciously lets this feeling affect her treat-
ment of the boy. The home is a second floor flat. The father is of
Swedish parentage. There is plenty of money to buy the necessary
food, but the mother is of the opinion that children should not be
made to eat anything which they do not like. The house is clean and
well kept, as are the children. There is no attempt to beautify the
home, but its bareness is more an indication of lack of feeling for
beauty than of poverty. The boys play together constantly and are
much on the street.
Johnny was a healthy baby, was nursed by his mother, and has
never been seriously ill. He is quite cross-eyed, and an examination
of his eyes revealed the fact that the vision of one eye is four-tenths,
and of the other one-tenth. His tonsils are very large, he needs
circumcision, he has flat foot, bow legs, protruding scapulae, eleven
carious teeth, and the haemoglobin content is 75. Johnny is a little
overweight, and it would seem, must have much physical vigor to
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 73
-withstand as well as he does so many physical defects. The mother
at once had his eyes examined and procured glasses; the other
defects have not been remedied.
The mental examination revealed as many weaknesses as did the
physical. At only six points does his profile curve pass the 50 per-
centile. One of these points shows no ability, but as it was a
suggestion test in which the whole class followed the suggestion, the
100 percentile really means participation in class failure. One
suggeston test was successfully resisted, the 60 percentile was
reached in one discriminative attention test, and the 70 percentile
in the other. The 60 percentile was also reached in the picture
memory test, the 70 percentile in the first steadiness test for the left
hand (which is his preferred hand). The peaks are rare in this
profile, which occupies almost constantly the lower part of the
graph. In all the performance tests and in the general intelligence
tests he falls behind, testing just at age or in the 30 percentile by
Binet, and one year retarded or in the percentile by the Stan-
ford revision. He graded at the 50 percentile in the Knox-Pintner
cube test, and the percentile in the Porteus test.
The physical and mental pictures of this little boy are strikingly
similar, defects being so numerous that one almost despairs. Never-
theless, there are so many points of attack for helping Johnny that
there is much to do before we give up. The mother is worried over
him and will do all that she is convinced is right to do. She feels
that the school should provide special training for children with
such speech defects, and rather resents being told that Johnny
should have special training when the schools obviously do not
provide it.
Without the correction of his physical defects, and in addition
special training, the prospect for Johnny is not good. With these
it is possible that much may be done to help him.
Child No. 2. Anna is a little girl who came to us on her fifth
birthday. She is fat, rosy and six pounds overweight. She was a
healthy breast-fed baby. At six months she had whooping cough and
developed eczema on her head and body, which has continued in
•spite of various treatments ever since, though now it is confined
entirely to her body.
The home is a very comfortable working man's home, a small
wooden house with porch, the kind common in this neighborhood.
The house is furnished well with some thought to decoration, but
74 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
almost too plentifully supplied with pictures. There is a piano and
the young mother is studying music. The parents are socially
inclined and "go a great deal" in the evenings, always taking Anna
because she can not be left alone. She gets very little sleep, taking
no nap and going to bed late. She drinks no milk, eats principally
potatoes and gravy and fruit.
She is a bright, happy, little thing and shows no nerve signs in
spite of loss of sleep and poorly balanced diet. Medical examination,
however, revealed a heart murmur and enlarged tonsils and
adenoids. The haemoglobin content is 95, the highest for any child
in the group. Her psychic profile shows a rather even fluctuation
above and below the median percentiles. Her lowest scores occur in
imagination and psycho-motor ability. In general intelligence she
tested just at age, both by the Binet and Stanford Revision Intelli-
gence scales. Strong in attention, she scored five years beyond her
age in the Knox-Pintner Cube test, but this only puts her in the 80
percentile group.
Medical care, change of diet, and regular hours are greatly to be
desired for this little girl. Although she does not now to any great
extent show the bad effects of the unwise home regime, it can hardly
be expected that many years will pass before very grave results
will be evidenced. The greatest lack in this home is a knowledge of
the proper daily routine for a child. She receives devoted care, but
it is very unwisely directed. There is no doubt of her future
satisfactory mental progress.
Child No. 3. Sophie is the picture of health, four pounds heavier
than the average for her age, with rosy cheeks, bright eyes, and an
alert, emotional and lovable disposition. She has an infantile stam-
mer which persists because she uses it in a very appealing way which
brings an appreciative smile from all hearers. Unfortunately, a
careful medical examination did not justify the appearance of
abundant health. The bright eyes had not quite perfect vision, the
cervical glands, the inguinal glands, the tonsils and adenoids were
enlarged, there was a heart murmur and two teeth were decayed.
The haemoglobin content was however, rather high — 83.
The mother reports that Sophie did not have a very good start
in life; the birth was difficult, the child small and sickly and the
mother had not sufficient milk to nourish her. She has suffered no
serious illness since.
The mother was much disappointed in the medical report because
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 75
Sophie is the baby and the pride of a very happy and united little
family. The parents are Russian Jews, the father a junk dealer.
The home, which is of the usual small wooden type, is not only
comfortable but attractive. The family spirit is very beautiful and
the attitude toward strangers cordial and hospitable. Sophie drinks
one quart of milk a day and it is very evident that there is plenty
of good food for the child.
Sophie's emotionalism showed itself in an outburst of temper.
She thought herself deceived and slighted by her older sister and
stamped and sobbed and would not be comforted. The mother had
little control over her. The child is much loved and the sweetness
of her nature has been developed thereby, but unfortunately, not
her self-control.
The psychic profile lies for the most part high on the chart,
although the imagination drops very low and also the vital capacity
In general intelligence she is a year in advance by the Binet series,
and just at age by the Stanford Revision.
Sophie's chief need is that her parents be guided to give her
proper medical, dental and hygienic attention. The parents desire
to do well for their children, but they are themselves at the point
where one hot bath a week seems sufficient and the cleaning of
teeth is entirely overlooked. Special training should be given at once
to terminate the infantile stammer, which if it continues, is very
likely to interfere with her mental progress. With medical care and
speech training provided, satisfactory mental development is
certain.
Children Nos. 4 and 5. Erma and Effie are twins, and the only
children of the family. They are tall and thin, rather pale and
breathe through their mouths. All that is said of one may be dupli-
cated for the other, for they are almost identical in appearance,
voice, gesture, temperament and mental type.
The home is an exceedingly comfortable one, kept so by thrift
and industry on the part of the mother. She makes attractive
dresses for the children, sometimes, according to the little girls,
"from our grandmother's." She also crochets lace for sale among
her friends. There is a piano and a victrola in the living room. The
mother manages the little girls as well as she manages the home
economy ; they are well behaved, obedient and go to bed every night
at eight o'clock. They give the mother no trouble, are tremendously
76 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
interested in her fancy work and in all that she does, and are
demonstratively affectionate toward her.
The mother is of German descent. The father's ancestry is
obscure. The children were delivered by instruments, they were
nursed by the mother and have had no illnesses, not even the
ordinary children's diseases.
In spite of this account of good health, the medical examination
confirms the general impression the children give of poor physical
condition. It shows enlarged tonsils, adenoids and cervical glands,
malnutrition, umbilical hernia, flat foot, protruding scapulae and
many carious teeth, among which are permanent molars. The
quality of their voices is spoiled by the enlarged adenoids, which
prevent nasal breathing, and their beauty is marred by their open
mouths. The undernourished condition is probably largely due to
the absorption of pus from tonsils, adenoids and teeth. The
problem is serious because the father resents even a physical
examination of his children. An effort should be made to reach the
father and to convince him of the physical needs of his little ones,
and the inevitable suffering their neglect will bring upon them.
Both little girls have reached the same general intelligence level,
scoring the 100 percentile in the Binet series, and the 90 percentile
in the Stanford Revision, thus showing a two and a one year
acceleration. Their psychic profiles are alike in type. Their, mental
ability is undoubtedly of a high order.
Child No. 7. Edwin would attract attention anywhere with his
keenly alert, strangely mature little face and undersized, under-
nourished little body. He is entirely lacking in childishness; no
trace of the baby remains, although he is but five years of age. He
is a little on the defensive, distrustful of strangers and entirely
determined to do as he pleases.
The physical examination showed him to be five pounds lighter
than the average for his age, to have a haemoglobin content of 75,
to be partially deaf in the right ear (the result of former middle
ear disease), and to have a slight scoliosis, with protruding
scapulae. He had already been circumcised.
The mother, who is a woman of refinement and ambition,
although without much education, is almost in despair concerning
the boy, who from the first has been a nervous, irritable, sickly little
thing. He is the only child living, coming to the mother late in life
after she had lost several babies. The birth was difficult, the
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 77
mother's milk did not agree with Edwin nor did other food, and he
has always had great trouble with constipation. The mother,
instead of regulating his food wisely, constantly resorts to laxatives.
On account of his sickliness he has been humored until now he is
entirely beyond his parents' control. He eats what he chooses
irrespective of consequences and the mother is unable to prevent
him without precipitating such a scene that she prefers to keep the
peace. The mother is of English parentage, the father probably of
Irish descent. There is money enough and good will enough to do
all possible for the boy, but his training has been wrong from the
start and the child now has full control of everything but his
temper.
In the intelligence tests, Edwin reached the 70 percentile with
the Binet tests, which signifies an acceleration of one year, and the
60 percentile in the Terman Revision, signifying his chronological
age level. It was impossible to make a thorough mental analysis in
Edwin's case because he absolutely refused to cooperate.
Child No. 8. Isadore is an only child. The father is a mechanic of
Swedish descent. He measures six feet two inches, and is physically
a splendid specimen of manhood. His mind is no mean match for
his body, and had circumstances started him in a different groove
he could easily have qualified for a profession. The mother is
Pennsylvania Dutch.
The home is a good one. The furnishings are of good quality, the
pictures well chosen and the rooms tastefully arranged.
Isadore is very lively and energetic, and the mother fears that he
will find out that his will is stronger than hers. He was a healthy
baby, nursed by the mother. His only illnesses have been mumps
and measles. He drinks plenty of milk and is a well brought up,
attractive boy.
The physical examination shows enlarged cervical glands,
adenoids and tonsils, a slight dullness of hearing, a haemoglobin
content of 72, and protruding scapulae. He needs circumcision. As
the parents are decidedly intelligent and much interested in our
efforts to help the child, Isadore will probably be given the
individual aid which he needs.
His mental profile shows very few dips into the lower half of the
graph. In general intelligence he only made the 30 percentile on
the Binet test, and the 60 percentile in the Stanford Revision. This
is exactly his chronological age grading.
78 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
Child No. 9. Daisy, aged five, has the independence of a woman
of forty. She wishes no interference to detract from the effect of her
own personality. On entering kindergarten for the first time, she
decided to go alone, and she wishes to choose her own clothes and
her mother's too, for that matter. Her parents are American. The
mother is attractive in person and very mild and unassertive in
temperament. The father is a farmer and is away from home a great
deal. The mother is not very well. She has rheumatism, in the hope
of relieving which she has had her appendix, tonsils and several
teeth removed. The home is very small. It is very clean, but only
moderately neat and comfortable.
The child has absolutely no respect for her mother's word or
opinion. The mother realizes this and complains that the father has
always spoiled the child by allowing her to do whatever she fancies.
He began when she was an infant by insisting that the mother drop
everything and take her up whenever she began to cry. The health
crusade appealed to the child and led her to demand milk and cocoa
for the first time. Previously she demanded tea and coffee in spite
of her mother's protests. Now she as determinedly refuses to touch
them. She sleeps ten hours each night. She is five pounds heavier
than the average for her age and her only physical defect apart
from the low haemoglobin content (75) is very defective vision. The
mother had this corrected by glasses immediately upon being
notified of the condition.
Daisy's psychological profile shows a weakness in imagination
and in the perception of grays. Her general intelligence, which is at
the 70 percentile in the Binet series and the 60 percentile in the
Stanford Revision, is by the former two years accelerated and by
the latter exactly at her chronological level. The most remarkable
thing about the child is her tremendous self possession and inde-
pendence. She was most valuable to us as a pilot for all the shy
youngsters and helped us over many difficult places with them. Her
confidence in herself has evidenlty been gained at the cost of respect
for her mother. She is, however, of a sunny bright nature which
makes everyone like her in spite of her abnormal amount of
assurance. Guidance by a wise strong woman is what is needed for
Daisy.
Child No. 10. Theodore is the last of four children. The parents
are of English descent. Both parents are people of native refine-
ment, but the cost of living has proved too much for them and the
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 79
pinch of poverty is plainly visible. All four of the children are
mouth breathers. They all have enlarged tonsils, adenoids and an
offensive nasal discharge. Fortunately, the parents were glad to
send all the children to the Children's Hospital in Iowa City.
Theodore's tonsils and adenoids were removed and his antrum
punctured. Just one month later he had to return for a second
puncture of the antrum. His medical examination also showed
enlarged cervical glands, a haemoglobin content of 76, weight two
pounds under average and flat foot.
The mental examination revealed a general backwardness and a
psychic profile which repeatedly dipped below the median and was
particularly poor in imagination, judgment and psycho-motor
control. In general intelligence he ranked among those at the
percentile by both the Binet and the Terman scales which means one
year retardation. We could hardly expect any other result with the
physical condition above described. Even in the interval between the
first and second operation there was practically no physical relief.
Children Nos. 13 and 14. Children Nos. 13 and 14 are brother and
sister, whom we will call Sonny and Sarah. They are both fat and
beaming, and it is pleasing to see the protecting air of the boy when
he brings his little sister just a year younger than he is to school or
to the office. The two are the youngest of five siblings. The older
three are all girls and all married. The parents are both American
born, of English Canadian and Scotch parentage. The father is a
laborer and the pinch of poverty is reflected in the poor home and
meager furnishings. They are fortunate in having a strip of ground
back of the house which the father converts into a kitchen garden in
the summer time. This probably accounts for the well fed appear-
ance of the children. The mother is a strong industrious type, and
the spirit of the home is splendid.
Neither of the children has had any of the usual children's
diseases. Sarah is subject to croup which the mother says is "in the
family." Sarah has large and diseased tonsils, enlarged cervical
glands, a haemoglobin content of 75 and a slight mitral regurgita-
tion. The left ear drum is dull ; the hearing, however, is not affected.
The vision is quite defective and there is in addition an incoordina-
tion of eye muscles. She is left handed. Sonny has many of the same
physical difficulties. He has defective vision, enlarged tonsils,
enlarged cervical glands and heart murmur. He also has enlarged
80 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
inguinal glands and needs circumcision. He has lordosis and
scoliosis.
Such a list of physical defects for two children who, to a casual
observer, appear particularly healthy, indicates the necessity of a
thorough medical examination of all children when they first enter
school.
For Sonny the Binet level is one year in advance of his age, the
Stanford Revision just at age. The highest peaks in his psycholog-
ical profile are attained in attention and psycho-motor ability and
in resistance to suggestion; there is a decided dip in imagination
and in one learning test, while the tests of the memory and of the
perception group show little correlation within the group. Sarah
did not make such a good showing mentally. Her intelligence rating
was just at age, with both series of tests, but she dropped below the
median in nineteen points in her psychic profile; she resisted
suggestion well and made other good scores in some of the percep-
tion, memory and learning tests, reaching the 90 percentile in the
Vital Capacity score. Both children give promise of developing into
intelligent individuals, but in order to do so they need immediate
medical care.
Child No. 15. Helen is seven years old, a loving and lovable child y
but sadly handicapped physically and socially. She was born with a
left hand that has only part of the first phalanx of all fingers and
thumb. She said, with a pathetic smile, that God wished her hand
to be that way. Her family is large and very poor; both her body
and her clothing testify to sad neglect. The child objected so
strenuously and so tearfully to the physical examination that it
could not be completed. Her embarrassment was probably largely
due to her uncleanly condition. Even with this incomplete examina-
tion, her list of physical defects is long — poor vision, enlarged
cervical glands, rales, heart murmur, marked malnutrition, six
pounds underweight, with a Vital Index below standard.
Her irregular school attendance made impossible as exhaustive a
mental examination as was made of some of the children and
therefore her psychic profile shows many gaps. Her intelligence level
by the Binet scale and also by the Stanford Revision is just at age.
Her age level for the Knox-Pintner cube test drops to the 30
percentile and for the Porteus maze test reaches the 50 percentile.
This is clearly the case of a child backward in school on account
of adverse home conditions. She evidently is deprived of the
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 81
necessary food, clothing, soap and water, to say nothing of the
opportunity for play and joy which are prerequisites of healthy
childhood.
Enough sketches have been presented to show that the basis of
physical defects and of character defects that may result in school
and life failure is already fixed when the child first enters school.
Enough sketches have been presented to emphasize the fact that if
we desire to start the children in our schools with more equal
chances of success we must reach the young mothers and must help
them to an understanding of the needs of their children and of the
tremendous effect on their children's lives of the habits that are
formed during the first five years. The parents must be taught what
to feed their children and why, when to put them to bed, and how
long to keep them there. They must be made to realize that unless
children see and hear clearly, breathe through their noses, have good
teeth and good digestions, they need not be expected to succeed in
school, or to retain their health and energy long. Parents must be
taught just how to form in their children desirable habits and how
to thwart undesirable habits. All this knowledge must be made vital
for them, and they must be given actual aid in putting it in
practice.
If educators would succeed in leading the next generation to the
success of which it is potentially capable they must enter the homes
and help the young parents in whose care are those first &ve years so
important for the laying of a firm foundation of health and good
habits. In order to furnish such guidance, educators must study the
children during their first year in school and see to it that those who
are handicapped by physical or mental defects or derangements are
provided with the medical and pedagogical aid that they require.
82
IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
»*»*»SS?»8
Gray
Red
Blue
Green
Yellow
Length
Form
Position
Weight
Words
Sentences
Colors
Objects
Forms
Position
Pictures
Visual Span
Auditory Span
Attention - Simple
Attention -Disc
Attention - Simple
Attention- Disc.
Heilbronner
Healy-Fernold A
HeafyFernald B
Judgment
Steadiness t'R
Steadiness t-L,
Steadiness Z-R
Tar gat -R
Target -L
Spirometer
Dynamometer -R
Dynamometer -L
He a/y- Fern aid -A
Healy - Fernald'B
Wiring
Strin g Gam e s
Judgment- Length
Judgment- Weight
Hallucination -S.
Hallucination - T.
Automatism-Taps
AutomoHsm-E-H.
rlaxf/e/d Cube,
Form Board
Line Reproduction
Binet
Stanford Revision
Knox-Pintner Cube
Porteus
Chart III. Individual Psychological Profiles, 1-3
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN
83
»»»V*»t*t*3
Gray
Red
Blue
Green
Yellow
Length
Form
Position
Weight
Words
Sentences
Colors
Objects
Forms
Position
Pictures
Visual Span
Auditory Span
Attention - Simple
Attention "Disc,
Attention - Simple
Attention- Disc.
Meilbronner
Heo/y-Fernold A
Heoly-Fernald &
Judgment
Steadiness I'R
Steadiness t-L
Steadiness £-R
Target • R
Target -L
Spirometer
Dynamometer -R
Dynamometer -L
Healy - Ferna/d 'A
Mealy- Fernald- B
Wiring
String Games
Judgment- L enath
Judgment-Weight
Hallucination -S.
Hallucination - T.
Automatism-Taps
Automatism -E-H.
Hoxfie/d Cube
Form Board
Line Reproduction
Binet
Stanford Revision
KnoK-Pintner Cub*
Porteus
Chart IV. Individual Psychological Profiles, 4, 5, 7,
84
IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
Gray
Red
Blue
Green
Yellow
Length
Form
Position
Weight
Words
Sentences
Colors
Objects
Forms
Position
Pictures
Visual Span
Auditory Span
Attention- Simple '
Attention -Disc.
Attention - Simple
Attention- Disc.
Meilbronn er
HeafyFernald A
Healy-Fernald &
Judgment
Steadiness l~R
Steadiness t~L
Steadiness Z'R
Target -R
Target ~L
Spirometer
Dynamometer -P.
Dynamometer -L
Hea/y - Ferno/d-A
Healy - Fernald-Q
Wiring
String Games
Judgment- Length
Judgment-Weight
Hallucination -S.
Hallucination - T. '
1 Automatism-Taps
Automatism -£-H.
Maxfield Cube
Form Board
L in e Repro du c+i'on
Binet *
Stanford Revision
KnoK-Pintnar Cube
Porteus
Chart V. Individual Psychological Profiles, 8-10
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN
85
t • t * 1 1 1
Gray
Fed
Blue
Green
Yellow
Length
Form
Position
Weight
Words
Sentence*
Colors
Objects
Forms
Position
Pictures
Visual Span
Auditory Span
Attention - Simple
Attention "Disc.
Attention - Simple
Attention - Disc.
Heilbronn e r
Healy-Fernald A
Healy-Fernald 8
Judgment
Steadiness I'R
Steadiness l~L
Steadiness 2rR
Target -R
.Target -L
Spirometer
Dynamometer -R
Dynamometer -L
He a/y - Fern aid -A
Hea/y-Fernald'B
Wiring
String Games
Judgment- Length
Judgm ent- Weight
Hallucination -S.
Hallucination - T.
Automatism-Taps
Automatism -F-H.
Maxf/eld Cube
Form Board
Una Reproduction
Binet
Stan/6 rd Re vis ion
KnoK-Pintner Cube
Porteus
Chart VI. Individual Psychological Profiles, 13, 43, 45
86 IOWA STUDIES IN CHILD WELFARE
VII. REFERENCES
1. Andrews, B. R. Auditory Tests. Amer. J. of Psychol, 1904, (15),
14-56.
2. Baldwin, B. T. Physical Growth and School Progress. (Bull. No. 10,
U. S. Bur. of Educ.) Washington: Gov. Print. Off., 1914. Pp. 215.
3. Binet, A. and Simon, T. A Method of Measuring the Development
of the Intelligence of Young Children. Translated. C. H. Town
Chicago: Medical Book Co., 1915, 3rd Ed. Pp. 82.
4. Binet, A. La Suggestibility. Paris: Schleicher freres, 1900. Pp. 391.
5. Claparede, E. Profils psychologique gradues d'apres l'ordination des
sujects. Arch, de psychol., 1916, (17), 70-81.
6. Davenport, C. B. The Trait Book. Eugenics Record Off. Bull.
No. 6, 1912.
7. De Busk, B. W. Height, Weight, Vital Capacity and Retardation.
Ped. Sem., 1913, (20), 89-91.
8. Doll, E. A. Anthropometry as an Aid to Mental Diagnosis. The
Training School. Vineland, N. J.: 1916. Pp. 99.
9. Haddon, K. Cat's Cradles from Many Lands. New York: Long-
man's, Green & Co., 1911. Pp. 95.
10. Healy, W. and Fernald, G. Tests for Practical Mental Classifi-
cation. Psychol. Mon., 1911, (13), No. 2.
11. Heilbronner, K. Zur Klinisch-psychologischen Untersuchungens-
technik. Monatsch. f. Psychiat. u. Neurol, 1905, (17), 115-132.
12. Montessori, M. Pedagogical Anthropology. New York: Stokes,
1913. Pp. 500.
13. Pintner, R. and Paterson, D. A Scale of Performance Tests. New
York: D. Appleton & Co., 1917. Pp. 213.
14. Porteus, S. D. Mental Tests for Feeble-Minded ; A New Series.
J. of Psycho- Asthenics, 1915, (19), No. 4.
15. Porteus, S. D. Porteus Tests — Vineland Revision. Publ. of the
Train. Sch. Vineland, N. J.: 1919, No. 16.
16. Porteus, S. D. Cephalometry of the Feeble-Minded. Train. Sch.
Bull., 1919-20, (16), 49-72.
17. Rossolimo, G. Die psychologischen profils. Zur Methodik der
quantitativen Untersuchung der psychischen Vorgange in normalen
und pathologischen Falle. Klinik f. psych, u. nervose Krankh.,
1911, (6); 1912, (7); 1913, (8).
18. Seashore, C. E. The Audiometer. Univ. of Iowa Studies in Psychol,
Iowa City: University of Iowa Monographs, (2), 158.
19. Small, M. H. Methods of Manifesting the Instinct for Certainty.
Ped. Sem., 1897, (5), 313-380.
20. Smedley, F. W. Child Study Report No. 3, Chicago Pub. Sch. Chi*
cago, 111.: 1902.
21. Sylvester, R. H. The Form Board Test. Psychol. Mon,, 1913, (15),
No. 4.
ANALYTIC STUDY OF CHILDREN 87
22. Terman, L. M. The Measurement of Intelligence. New York:
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1915. Pp. 362.
23. Winch, W. H. Some New Reasoning Tests Suitable for School
Children. Brit. J. of Psychol, 1914, (7).
24. Woodworth, R. S. and Wells, T. L. Association Tests. Psychol.
Mon., 1911, (13), No. 5.
25. Young, J. E. Supernormal Environment in its Relation to the Nor-
mal Child. Trans, of the hth Intern. Cong, on Sch. Hyg. Buffalo:
1913, (2), 17-30.
TVNews
OpenLibrary